
0 



\ .NO 



.0 o. 



^ s'' , « 



0 o 






o5 -^^^ ■ 



- . 




Practical Forestry. 



A TREATISE ON THE PROPAGATIOIV, PLANTING, AND CULTIVA- 
TION, WITH A DESCRIPTION, AND THE BOTANICAL 
AND POPULAR NAVIES OF ALL THE 

Indigenous Trees of the United States, 

BOTH EVERaEEEN AND DECIDUOUS, TOGETHER WITH NOTES ON 
A LARGE NUMBER OF THE MOST 

VALUABLE EXOTIC SPECIES. 



BY 

ANDREW S. PULLER, 

AUTHOR OF THE " STEAWBEREY CULTUEIST," " GEAPE CULTURIST," '* SMALL 
FEUIT CULTUEIST," ETC., ETC. 




/3 3<3 7 

NEW TORK:^*^ 

OEANGE JUDD COMPANY, 

751 BROADWAY. 
1884. 



Entered, accoraing to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by the 
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 
In the OflSce of thje Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 




CONTENTS 



^ CHAPTER I. 

Influence of Forests on Climate 9 

Forests and Streams 15 

Trees for Shelter. 17 

Forests and Insects 18 

CHAPTER II. 

The Characteristics of Trees 19 

The Movement of Sap in Trees , 22 

The Buds of Trees 23 

CHAPTER III. 

Raising Trees from Seed 25 

Preparing a Seed-bed 28 

CHAPTER IV. 

Transplanting Seedlings 32 

CHAPTER V. 

Budding and Grafting 33 

Budding 86 

Grafting Deciduous Trees 42 

CHAPTER YI. 

Grafting Conifers , 48 

CHAPTER VII. 

Coniferse from Cuttings 51 

Layers 54 

CHA.PTER VIII. 

Deciduous Trees from Cuttings 54 

Propagation by Layering 55 

CHAPTER IX. 

Seedlings of Coniferse 58 

Sowing the Seeds 60 

Evergreens from the Forests 64 

Season for Transplanting 66 

(3) 



IV 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER X. 

Pruning Forest Trees 67 

Time to Prune , 69 

Pruning Evergreens 70 

Implements used in Pruning 71 

CHAPTER XI. 

The best Time to cut Timber 73 

CHAPTER XII. 

Importance of a Supply of Wood 75 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Preservation of Forests 78 

Management of Forests 79 

CHAPTER XIY. 

EstablisMng new Forests 80 

CHAPTER XY. 

Forest Trees 87 

CHAPTER XYI. 

Evergreen Trees 233 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Coniferae or Cone-bearing Trees 237 

CHAPTER XYIII. 

Additional list of Coniferae 278 

Trees not Generally Known 282 

Additions and Corrections 283 



PEEFACE. 



The preface of a book is usually considered the proper place 
for an author to give his reasons for writing it. FoUowing the 
usual custom in this matter, I may say that I am a son of a 
carpenter, who followed the business of building bridges, barns, 
houses, and similar structures, and my earliest recollections 
take me back to the time when I spent many an hour in the 
shop, twirling and unrolling the long, silky pine and white- 
wood shavings, and at these times I heard discussions almost 
daily in regard to wood, timber, trees, their quality, value, and 
variety. My father also owned a farm in the heavily wooded 
regions of "Western New York, and he highly appreciated the 
value of certain kinds of trees growing thereon, for his practiced 
eye would measure the size of a hewn stick of timber that 
could be made from a giant oak, beech, or ether kind of tree as 
it stood in the forest, as well as make a very close guess as to 
the number of feet of boards or plank that could be produced 
from the great white-woods, hemlocks, or pines, of those 
regions. Brought up amid such surroundings, and early taught 
to use tools and work in wood myself, it was but natural that I 
should take an interest in Forestry, and endeavor to learn 
something of the value of trees and forests. 

A few years later, or in the summer of 1846, I spent several 
weeks in the great pine forests of Eastern Michigan, commenc- 
ing at Port Huron, at the foot of Lake Huron, thence travel- 
ling northward to the Straits of Mackinaw. This extensive 
region was at that time an almost unbroken wilderness, although 
there were a few saw-mills scattered here and there along the 
lake shore, or in the bays, that afforded a good harbor for the 
small vessels engaged in transporting lumber. The mills at 
Port Huron, Saginaw, Thunder Bay, and a few other places 
were kept running, but they made only a slight impression 
upon the surrounding forests, and it was often asserted at that 
dav, that the pine forests of Michigan were simply inexhausti- 

(5) 



YI 



PREFACE. 



ble. But when a few weeks later I crossed Lake Michigan, and 
traTelled across Southern Wisconsin into Iowa, and in return- 
ing passed over the great prairies of Illinois, I began to realize 
the fact, that while there were great forests not far distant, 
there were also still more extensive regions of country that 
would and must be supplied with lumber and timber of various 
kinds. 

A nine years residence ia Wisconsin and Illinois, and several 
journeys across the Great Plains, west of the Mississippi Valley, 
with rambles in the Eocky Mountain regions, both in summer 
and winter, have added something to my acquaintance with 
our great forests, and strengthened my convictions as to their 
importance and value to the country. During all these years I 
have been engaged more or less in raising and planting forest 
trees, sometimes as a business, but frequently as a pastime, or 
for the purpose of experimenting with the different species, 
both exotic and indigenous. Twenty-five years ago I com- 
menced writing about forest trees, and from that time to the 
present, I have never allowed a season to pass without urging 
upon our people the importance of not only preserving the forests 
we now possess, but also the necessity of planting new ones. 

In 1864, at the urgent request of my former publishers, I 
wrote a Httle hand-book called the ^'Forest Tree Culturist," 
which was to be issued in a pamphlet form and sold at a low 
price, but after it was out of my control, these former publish- 
ers saw fit to add a cover of cloth, and offer it at the same price 
as my larger works, a change that I have always regretted, as 
it was not just to the author or purchaser. 

Many a time during my life have I felt the need of some one 
volume of moderate size, containing the names and descrip- 
tions, however brief the latter might be, of all the trees indi- 
genous to the United States. Having waited in vain for the 
appearance of such a book, I have attempted to write one my- 
self, with the hope that it will be of service, not only to those 
who may desire to raise forest trees for pleasure or profit, but 
to others, who, like the author, may occasionally visit different 
parts of the country, and need some such guide, that will 
help them to call to mind the names, as well as assist in identi- 
fying the different species of trees to be found in our forests. 
I have written it for those who are not supposed to have given 
the subject of forestry any special attention, and for this rea- 
son purposely avoided using any greater number of scientific 



PKEFACE, 



VII 



and unfamiliar terms than was actually necessary in describing 
the various species and varieties. 

Furthermore, at the suggestion of the publishers, I have been 
as brief as possible, in order to make a book that can be sold at 
a price within the means of all, and one that will not even deter 
the summer tourist, who is about to spend a few days or weeks 
in the country, from dropping a copy into his grip-sack before 
leaving home. Could I have followed my own desires and 
pleasures in this matter, the book would have been extended to 
a thousand pages, and illustrated at a cost of many thousands 
of dollars, but there are comparatively a small number of per- 
sons who take sufficient interest in forestry to purchase such a 
work; consequently my own wishes have been made subservi- 
ent to these circumstances, which neither author nor publishers 
have power to control. 

I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the excellent bo- 
tanical works of Prof. Asa Gray, and those of the late Dr. 
Chapman, of Florida, and Dr. Engelmann, of St. Louis, also to 
those other botanists, which I have had occasion to consult, and 
especially to the recently completed " Botany of California," by 
Profs. Gray, Brewer, Watson, and their many able assistants. 
To the works of Michaux, Nuttall, and other earlier writers I 
have frequently referred in the following pages, also to the 
**Book of Evergreens," by Josiah Hoopes, to which I have 
called especial attention in the Chapter on Coniferse. I have 
endeavored to give proper credit to the first describer of the 
species, but may in some instances have failed in this, owing to 
the confusion existing in regard to this matter in some of our 
botanical works. 

Andrew S. Fuller. 

Ridgewood, Bergen Co*, J., I884, 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



CHAPTEE I. 
INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE. 

The influence of forests on climate, is a subject that 
has attracted the attention of all civilized nations, and 
barbarous races, however low in the scale of intelligence, 
know enough of the effect of forests on climate to seek 
or avoid them as may be necessary to escape disease, or 
obtain shelter. We are not, however, to suppose that 
large forests are always a blessing to a country or to a 
people, or that their total absence is in all cases a dire 
calamity, for the jungles of India, or the almost im- 
penetrable forests of the tropical regions of America, are 
no more desiiable as places of residence, than the arid 
plains of this or any other country. What man should 
seek, is adaptation of the climate to his needs, and if he 
can increase or decrease the amount of moisture by chang- 
ing the area covered by forest, he should lose no time in 
beginning to raise trees, or to destroy them, which ever 
is likely to conduce most to his welfare. 

The cutting down of great forests, thus allowing the 
air and sun to reach the earth, and the wind to sweep 
over its siirface, must necessarily hasten the disappear- 
ance of moisture therefrom, just as the opening of the 
windows of a room tends to a more rapid movement of 
the air within, and aids in dispelling smoke, steam, or 
odors which it may have previously contained. We ven- 
tilate a building by arranging for the ingress and egress 
of air in such a way that it shall be kept in motion, and 
(9) 



10 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



we do the same thing on a more extended scale, when we 
raise or remove forests. Whenever an extensive region 
of country is denuded of its forests, the winds pass over 
it with greater velocity, impinging with greater force up- 
on the soil, rapidly dispelling the moisture on it or arising 
therefrom. Keeping this in mind, we can readily under- 
stand why a country denuded of its forests may become 
so dry as not to admit of the production of grain, or any 
of the ordinary cultivated crops, while the annual 
amount of rainfall remains almost if not quite as great as 
it was when the forests were standing, and when the hus- 
bandman seldom failed to raise remunerative crops. 

Any one who has resided for any length of time on the 
plains of Colorado, ISTew Mexico, or in fact almost any- 
where in the elevated regions of the West, can fully un- 
derstand the effect of winds on surface moisture deposited 
by rains. I have known more water to fall in one hour 
in these regions, than in any four I ever experienced in 
the Eastern States, while owing to the compact nature of 
the soil it could not penetrate to any considerable depth, 
but passes over to the lower lands and streams, leaving 
the ground nearly as dry as before it came. These show- 
ers are almost invariably followed by high Avinds, which 
take up and dispel what little moisture may have re- 
mained attached to the leaves and stems of the low-grow- 
ing weeds and grasses. The immense number of deep 
gullies to be seen all through Avhat has been aptly termed 
the ^^arid belt,'^ show plainly enough that very heavy 
showers do occasionally fall in these regions, but there is> 
no large area of sponge-like leaf-mould, in either forest 
or field, to take up and retain the waters until utilized 
by plants — dispersed by slow evaporation, or absorbed 
by the soil beneath, where a portion of it at least 
would find its way to the little springs below, which in 
turn would feed the brooks and streams of lower levels. 
Instead of these natural obstructions, the way is clear for 



INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE. 11 

the most rapid departure of all the water that may fall in 
the form of rain. A few showers at a certain season^ may 
produce a great amount of water, and still the section be 
so dry as to be almost uninhabitable the remainder of the 
year. One-half the quantity of water, if distributed 
through a longer period, might be all that was actually 
necessary to make the soil fertile and the climate de- 
lightful. 

In many instances the destruction of large forests ap- 
pears to have diminished the amount of rainfall, while in 
others no diminution has been observed. Col. Plavfair, 
British Consul for Algiers, in a report to the home Gov- 
ernment, instances some remarkable effects of extensive 
destruction of forests in that country. " During the 
first twelve years, since 1838, from which time meteoro- 
logical observations have been carried on in Algiers, the 
rainfall averaged 32 inches annually. During the sec- 
ond twelve years it had decreased to 30.8 inches, and 
during the last fourteen years, it has been but 25. 5 inches. 
The decrease became apparent after the principal clear- 
ings of wood in 1845, and in 1876 so exhausted had the 
soil become, that a famine seemed imminent in Western 
Algiers.^' 

Similar instances in the decrease in the amount of rain- 
fall following the destruction of forests, have been re- 
ported by several observers in various parts of the world, 
but principally by those residing in hot climates. AVher- 
ever forests of any considerable extent have been de- 
stroyed in Australia, Africa, India, Ceylon, or in the is- 
lands of the Indian and Atlantic oceans, lying within 
what may be termed the tropical belt, drouths seem to 
have almost invariably f ollow^ed. These drouths, however, 
have not in all instances been traceable to a diminished 
amount of rain, but to rapid dispersion of moisture by 
winds, as well as evaporations from a soil exposed to the 
direct rays of a tropical sun. In fact, all written history 



13 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



that gives us any information relating to the clearing of 
the earth's surface of forests for the use, conyenience, or 
other purposes by man, show that it diminishes atmos- 
pheric moisture more or less. In some instances this may 
be beneficial, especially in regions where there is too 
much rain and moisture for the convenience and pros- 
perity of the inhabitants. For this reason, it cannot be 
said that the destruction of forests is always to be depre- 
cated and looked upon as an evil, for it may be a blessing 
in more ways than one. 

The healthfulness of a country is frequently influenced 
by the condition of the forests. It has often been claimed 
by those who are supposed to be acquainted with such 
matters, that the draining of sw^amps, pools, and even 
the under-draining of arable lands, tends to increase the 
healthfulness of a country or neighborhood. While this 
may be true in some instances, the dispersion of what 
may be termed surplus moisture, does not always produce 
desirable results. 

For a hundred years or more, it has been noticed that 
the climate of the Island of Mauritius was changing from 
one of great humidity to one of extreme dryness, 
which, it is claimed is due to the destruction of the great 
forests that originally covered the country. So great 
has been this change, that large tracts of land once 
occupied by sugar plantations have been abandoned in 
consequence of the severe drouths, which are of such 
frequent occurrence that planters will no longer take the 
risk of planting cane, while at the same time the mor- 
tality among the inhabitants from fevers has been very 
great, and these diseases appear to increase in severity as 
the humidity of the climate decreases. It is quite 
probable, however, that the fevers are due to the drying 
up of the surface moisture, and to the stagnant pools 
formed during the rainy season. 

When the country was covered with forests, and rains 



IKFLUEi^CE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE. 



13 



were more frequent and abundant^ the soil was shaded 
and covered with leaves and other vegetable matter, 
that prevented the rapid evaporation of moisture — a 
portion of which must necessarily have found its way by 
percolation into the ponds. The water in these ponds 
was not only frequently renewed by showers, but pu- 
rified by almost constant aeration, in consequence of the 
visits of water fowls that frequented them in search of 
food. Every ripple of the surface forced air beneath it, 
and the movements of the birds — reptiles, amphibia, and 
aquatic insects making their homes, or occasionally 
visiting these ponds, assisted in aerating and purifying 
the water. Ponds under such conditions never give off 
fever germs, no matter in what country or climate they 
may be located, but when they dry in consequence of 
scarcity of rain, or the water is removed artificially, 
there is always more or less danger of the emission and 
dispersion of fever germs. 

The draining of swamps, ponds — the changing of the 
beds of streams — opening of new streets, even in our 
older cities, as well as the breaking up of the virgin 
soils of woodlands or prairies, are operations very likely 
to be followed with outbreaks of chills and fever, among 
the inhabitants of the neighborhood. The principles 
that appear to govern the developement of fever germs, 
are the same the world over, and if ponds, swamps, or 
lowlands are to be drained at all, it should be thoroughly 
done, that there shall be no repetition of the danger 
which usually follows the first disappearence of the 
v/ater therefrom. 

We naturally look to the old world for information 
in regard to the influence of forests on climate, because 
there men have paid the most attention to the subject, 
at least in modern times, and even if we go further back 
and grope about among ancient cities buried in drifting 
sands, or pass over desert wastes, where once forests 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



stood, while near by, fields of waving grain rejoiced tlie ■ 
hearts of the husbandmen, the lesson is the same, — 
forests, fields, and firesides, are three inseparable links 
in the golden chain of man's prosperity as a tiller of the 
soil. 

But the destruction of forests in the old world 
interests us, mainly as a warning, showing what may 
happen in this, if we continue doing as we have done 
during the past half century, in stripping the land of 
forests. I doubt if we haye any proof that the destruc- 
tion of forests thus far, in America, has had any per- 
ceptable influence upon the amount of rainfall, and 
there are not wanting instances where more rain has fallen 
in the open country than in the forests, but I beheve 
that the fact is well established that in wooded countries, 
or where forests abound, it rains oftener and the atmos- 
phere is, in consequence, more humid than where the 
opposite conditions exist. Marsh in his ^^Man and 
Nature," sums up this question of the effect of i 
forests and rainfall as follows: The effect of the i i 
forests then, is not entirely free from doubt, and we i 
cannot positively affirm that the total annual quantity of 
rain is diminished or increased by the destruction of the ; 
woods, though both theoretical considerations and the | 
balance of testimony strongly favor the opinion that more , 
rain falls in wooded, than in open countries, one im- j 
portant conclusion, at least, upon the meteorological I 
influence of forests is certain and undisputed ; the I k 
proposition, namely, that within their own limits, and | 
near their own borders, they maintain a more uniform j ei 
degree of humidity in the atmosphere, than is observed so 
in the cleared grounds, scarcely less can it be questioned | re; 
that they promote the frequency of showers, and if they eg] 
do not augment the amount of precipitation, they m 
equalize its distribution throughout the season." 

There are, no doubt, great irregularities which must be 



INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE. 15 

taken into consideration when making observations in 
regard to the influences of forests on climate. There may 
be long series of years in which drouths will prevail, 
even in close proximity to very extensive forests, and 
these may be succeeded by seasons in which an unusual 
amount of rain will fall, but these extremes occur in all 
countries, and they do not prove that the average amount 
of moisture during a longer series of years has been in- 
creased or diminished by physical changes of the earth's 
surface, wrought by the direct agency of man. It must 
not be supposed that a few acres, more or less of forests, 
will produce any appreciable effect on the climate of the 
surrounding country, but they may, and in fact, usually 
do have a local influence in preserving humidity as well 
as affording shelter and protection against prevailing 
winds. 

FORESTS AND STREAMS. 

In all forests there is more or less vegetable matter, 
made up of leaves, twigs, old wood, mosses, and decaying 
herbaceous plants, all of which go to make up a sponge- 
like mass, covering the earth and filling the interstices 
between rocks, or perhaps such has been washed into 
depressions where the land is uneven or much broken up. 
But in whatever position it rests it absorbs and retains a 
large amount of water that falls in rains, or is produced 
from melting snow, until it slowly sinks into the soil 
below or is dispersed by evaporation. A part of that 
which passes into the soil is taken up by the trees, and 
exhaled by their leaves, thereby adding humidity to the 
surrounding atmosphere ; another part passes beyond the 
reach of the roots, and finding subterranean channels is 
carried onward until it again comes to the surface in 
springs, or sinks to some lower depth and entirely dis- 
appears. 

That the vast deposits of vegetable matter in our great 



16 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



forests are the reservoirs from which, innumerable springs 
and brooks are supplied, is unquestionable, and not only 
are there hundreds of instances on record of springs and 
brooks drying up in consequence of the destruction of 
adjacent forests, but there are few persons who have 
reached middle life, that cannot call to mind more than 
one such, with which he has had personal cognizr.nce. If 
the little streams cease to flow through the greater part 
of the year, it must necessarily effect the larger ones. 
In all regions where there is considerable snow in winter, 
it remains much longer in the woods where it is shaded, 
than upon the bare hills and mountains, hence, the more 
continuous flow of brooks that have their source in 
elevated forest covered regions. If the trees are removed 
from the hills, mountains, and elevated regions of a 
country, the great masses of vegetable mould which ab- 
sorbs, retains, and checks the rapid descent of water from 
the higher to the lower levels disappear, and instead of 
water falling upon a sponge-like bed it strikes the bare 
earth or rocks from which it slides, rushing onward with 
constantly increasing velocity — forcing brooks and rivers 
to overflow their banks, often causing great destruc- 
tion of life and projDerfcy. In the rapid movement of 
water from higher to lower levels, it removes all the 
lighter and more fertile parts of the soil, and this is 
repeated until the mountains and hillsides have lost the 
last remnant of a fertile soil, and become totally barren. 
Such lands can never be of any great value for cultiva- 
tion, and for this reason, if no other, they ought to be 
reserved and kept covered with forests, as part of the 
public domain. 

If forests tend to increase the rainfall of a country, as J 
has been quite generally claimed, it might seem paradox-! 
ical to assume that they could in any manner have the 
least influence in preventing floods, for the more rain, 
the more water to escape and pass off in our streams,!! 



INFLUENCE OF FORESTS ON CLIMATE. 17 

and while it cannot be urged that the preservation of 
forests, however extensive, will insure a country against 
the recurrence of disastrous floods, they certainly do have 
a modifying influence on the water that flows from the 
higher to the lower levels, and finally reach the brooks 
and larger streams. Before any considerable amount 
of water can pass from forest-covered regions, the great 
deposits of vegetable matter covering the land must 
necessarily become saturated and then only will there be 
an overflow, besides the leaf-mould, sticks, brush, logs, 
and similar materials, which are more or less abundant in 
all forests, aid in retarding the flow, even after the 
absorption has ceased — hence, we can readily understand 
how a large volume of water may be held in check, and 
prevented from a rapid descent to the streams below. 
The leaves, twigs, and rough bark on the larger branches 
and stems of the trees, also intercept the rain falling 
upon them, and thus diminish the amount of water that 
would otherwise reach the earth. 

TREES FOR SHELTER. 

Pioneers in heavily-wooded regions are usually anxious 
to make a clearing, and as every tree felled not only in- 
creases the area which he is to cultivate, but extends his 
view, the axe is often kept in use long after there is any 
necessity for the purpose of obtaining land for cultiva- 
tion. In a few years the settler, who was at first so 
anxious to open up the country, finds he has gone a little 
too far in this direction for his own comfort and that of 
his animals, for on taking down the screen he has not 
only admitted the cold winds of winter, but those of 
summer sweep over his fields, driving away needed mois- 
ture — whip the fruit from his trees before it is ripe, and 
otherwise causes loss that might have been prevented. 
It is then that he begins to feel the need of protection. 



18 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 

and to wish that his house and outbuildings were located 
by the side of some friendly forest or groye. 

But if the inhabitants of once thickly wooded regions 
feel the need of shelter, how much more must those who 
settle in the prairie regions, where there are tens and even 
hundreds of miles, over which the wind sweeps at all 
seasons, without so much as a shrub to interfere or check 
it in its movements. It is in these treeless regions that 
forests are needed for giving shelter to man and beast, 
r.nd also to protect the fields and orchards of the hus- 
bandman. Forests are the natural remedy for the im- 
perfections of the climate of the prairie region, and 
while they may not do away with all the objections that 
might be urged against such regions, they certainly go 
far towards ameliorating present conditions. The 
remedy is a simple one, and not beyond the means of the 
poorest. Trees are cheap, and can be as readily grown 
as the most common vegetable of the garden, when one 
has learned how do it. 

FORESTS AKD IKSECTS. 

Forests were, without doubt, the original home of 
some of our noxious insects, but they w^ere also the home 
of their natural enemies, among which we may safely 
place in the front rank the insectivorous birds. But 
when the forests are destroyed, the birds seek a home 
elsewhere, or are destroyed or frightened away by hunt- 
ers, and while the insects may in a measure be disturbed, 
they still find food in our orchards, gardens, and among 
ornamental trees of various kinds. Give the birds 
shelter and treat them kindly, and they would in many 
instances aid us in keeping down our insect pests. It is 
true there is a difficulty in distinguishing friends from 
foes among the birds, and even when we are able to do 
this, it is scarcely possible to drive away our enemies with- 
out at the same time frightening our friends. 



THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES. 19 



CHAPTER 11. 
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES. 

The trees of the world are separated by botanists into 
two grand divisions, known as exogens or outside growers 
and endogenSj or inside growers. These two divisions 
are also called dicotyledon- 
ous and monocotyledonous, 
the first having two cotyle- 
dons or seed-leaves^ as seen 
in the sprouting acorn or 
young maple (fig. 1) the 
two lower leaves being the 
cotyledons), and similar tree 
seeds, while the others have 
but one cotyledon or seed- 
leaf, as seen in the cocoa- 
nut, date, and other species 
of palms. As we have but 
two or three arborescent 
species of the palm, and a 
yucca or two that reaches a 
hight of even small trees, 
and these are of no espe- 
cial value, I shall have no 
further occasion to refer to 
monocotyledonous plants in 
the ensuing pages. All of 
the ligneous or trees with 
firm wood, belong to the ^ig. 1.-seedling maple. 
exogens, but in some in- 
stances, such as the pines, the embryo is provided 
with more than two cotyledons, and there are from 
three to ten seed-leaves instead of two, but there are 
never less than two. As the seedlings grow up into 




20 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



trees, their stems and branches increase in diameter by 
the annual formation of a new layer or ring of wood, de- 
posited on the outside of that of the preceding year — 
hence the name of the outside growers. 

The root at first is but a single descending axis, grow- 
ing downward and absorbing nourishment from the sur- 
rounding soil, for the support of the ascending axis or 
stem. This condition or form of root exists for only a 
.period, varying from a few hours to a few days; for, 
from this central root or radicle of seedlings, side or 
lateral roots are emitted, not only as it would appear in 
search of nutriment, but to more firmly fix the plant in 
the soil. This central, or as it is more commonly termed 
among nurserymen and arboriculturists, tap-root, may 
continue to elongate for years, and penetrate the earth 
to the depth of several feet, or it may cease to grow 
when the plant is only a few weeks or months old, all 
depending upon the character of the soil, or the habit of 
the tree under cultivation. 

The side or lateral roots, however, continue to elongate 
as long as the tree lives, for it is the newer or younger 
roots that are always the most active in absorbing nutri- 
ment, the more rapid their development and multiplica- 
tion, the more rapid is the growth of the whole tree. 

That portion above ground is at first but a simple 
stem bearing only leaves, but as it increases in hight and 
age, buds are formed on the central axis and from these 
springs branches, and this multiplication of branches and 
buds continues throughout the entire life of the tree. The 
first buds formed on the stem may or may not produce 
branches, depending on circumstances, but as a rule only 
a few of the uppermost do so, and the others are over- 
grown and smothered. 

As a whole, a tree may be said to consist of roots, 
stem, branches, buds, leaves, flowers, and fruit, with 
bark surrounding all the ligneous parts. This bark is at 



THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES. 



21 



first yery thin, but subject to great alterations with age, 
owing to the distention through the increasing diameter 
of the stem, as well as the formation of new layers of 
liber or inner bark. This annual addition from within 
pushes outward the older bark, often causing it to crack 
open, forming deep fissures in the outer surface, or to 
fall ofE in scales. 

The stem of the tree is composed of wood in different 
conditions. The term alburnum is applied to the new 
or sap-wood, through which the crude sap absorbed by 
the roots passes upward to the leaves where it is assimi- 
lated. In returning, it is distributed over the entire sur- 
face of the tree, forming new layers of wood and bark. 
Some authors have applied this name to the half-formed 
yegetable matter, lying between the bark and the wood 
during the growing season, but that is now called by 
yegetable physiologists the cambium layer, to dis- 
tinguish alburnoiis or fully formed young wood. This 
alburnum or sap-wood, sooner or later, is mostly 
changed into heart-wood, assuming in most kinds of trees 
a dark color as seen in the red cedar, black walnut, 
beech, and oak, and although it is in fact dead wood, 
decay is prevented through its protection from the air, 
by the surrounding layers of alburnum. 

Some kinds of trees have very thin layers of alburnum, 
especially those of slow growth, while the stems of 
others appear to be all sap-wood, as seen in the white 
pine, tulip tree, and white-heart hickory, but this is 
more in appearance than reality, the difference in color 
between the old and new wood being but slight. The 
change from soft-wood to heart-wood is not sudden, but 
proceeds slowly, the cell walls gradually becoming thicker 
and more rigid with age, and the difference in color is 
due mainly to chemical changes. The alburnum or out- 
side layers decay when exposed to the air far more rapid- 
ly than the heart-wood ; consequently it is less valuable 



>22 



PRACTICAL FORESTKY. 



for posts, rails, shingles, or other articles used in outside 
work, but it is sometimes used for inside finishing of 
buildings and furniture, giving greater variety. The 
young or outside layers of wood are the toughest and 
most flexible, as the filling up or thickening of the cell 
wall of the heart-wood makes the timber more firm and 
rigid, and doubtless more durable, but at the same time 
its elasticity and toughness is diminished. 

That the inside or heart-wood is dead, and only serves 
to strengthen the tree mechanically, is shown in the fact 
that it may be removed entirely by decay, and still the 
tree grow on vigorously for centuries. This leads me to 
the subject of 

THE MOVEMENT OE SAP IX TREES. 

All plants obtain their nourishment in a liquid or ^ 
gaseous form, by imbibition through the cells of thej 
younger roots or their fibrils. The fluids and gases thus 
absorbed, probably mingling with other previously as- 
similated matter, is carrried upward from cell to cell 
through the alburnum or sap-wood until it reaches the 
buds, leaves, and smaller twigs, where it is exposed to 
the air and light, and converted into organizable matter.. 
In this condition a part goes to aid in the prolongation! 
of the branches, enlargement of the leaves, and formatioDl 
of the buds, flowers, and fruit, and other portions an| 
gradually spread over the entire surface of the wood, ex-; 
tending downward to the extremities of the roots. W( 
often speak of the downward flow of sap, and even of it 
circulation, but its movement in trees in no way corre 
spends with the circulation of blood in animals, neithe 
does it follow any well-defined channels, for it will, whe: 
obstructed, move laterally as well as lengthwise or wif 
the grain of the wood. 

The old idea that the sap of trees descended into tl 
roots in the fall and remaining there through the winte: 



THE CHARACTERISTICS OF TREES. 23 



is an error with no foundation whatever. As the wood 
and leaves ripen in the autumn, the roots almost cease 
to imbibe crude sap, and for a while the entire structure 
appears to part with moisture, and doubtless does so 
through the exhalations from the ripening leaves, buds, 
and smaller twigs, but as warm weather again approaches, 
and the temperature of the soil increases, the roots again 
commence to absorb crude sap and force it upward, 
where it meets soluble organized matter changing its 
! color, taste, and chemical properties, 
j If this was not the case, we could not account for the 
saccharine properties of the sap of the maple, or for the 
presence of various mucilaginous and resinous constit- 
uents of the sap of trees in early spring, because we 
find no trace of such substance in the liquids or crude 
sap as absorbed by them from the soil. If the growth of 
a tree continues all the season without check, there will 
be one well defined ring of new wood deposited over the 
entire outer surface; but in some instances drouths 
check growth in mid-summer, and these being followed 
by heavy rains and warm weather, a second growth often 
takes place, producing a second deposit of new wood. 
In what may be termed cool climates, it seldom occurs 
that a second deposit is of sufficient thickness to be dis- 
tinguished from the first, and as a rule the age of a tree 
may be determined by the annular rings, provided, of 
course, they are sufficiently distinct to be counted. 

THE BUDS OF TREES. 

For all practical purposes the buds of trees may be 
I divided into four classes, the terminal, axillary, acces- 
1 sory, and adventitious. What are usually termed fruit 
buds by horticulturists, may be placed in the second 
1 division, because they have not generally a fixed charac- 
ter, but are analagous to a leaf bud, and while under 



34 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



fayorable conditions they develop' into flowers, nnder 
others they merely produce leaves or their axis is extend- 
ed into a branch. The terminal buds, which crown the 
apex of a stem or the ends of branches, consist of un- 
developed leaves, which only require an elongation of the 
stem to allow for their full development. 

Axillary buds are those on the axil of each leaf, on 
the small twigs or on the yearling stems of seedlings, 
and from these the branches or lateral shoots are pro- 
duced. 

Accessory buds are merely a multiplication of the axil- 
lary bud, two, three, or even more in a cluster, but it is 
seldom that more than one of the number develops, ' 
the others remaining dormant. 

Adventitious buds are those which may be developed 
from almost any part of the stem, and are in no way de- 
pendent upon any natural location of leaves, joints, or 
internodes. In some plants, like the willows, poplars, ; 
hickories, and chestnut, they may appear from wounds I 
on the stems of large trees or from exposed roots, in 
fact, the cells of some kinds of trees appear to possess j 
an inherent property, which enables them to become i : 
buds or roots, according to the conditions under which 
they are placed. Such plants are usually considered as 1 
very tenacious of life, or as having great vitality, while c 
those of an opposite nature are far more difficult to prop- i 
agate, and require more care to cultivate. But this ( i 
may be due in part, at least, to our ignorance in regard to 3 
what they require for their full development, under arti- 1 g] 
ficial conditions. ! ci 

se 
k 
ini 
8tc 
(in 
tre 



EAISIKG TREES FROM SEED. 



25 



CHAPTER III. 
I RAISING TREES FROM SEED. 

Naturally, seeds drop from trees directly to the ground, 
or are scattered by the winds for some distance. To 
provide for their wider distribution many kinds of seed 
have their membraneous appendages or winged margins. 
These are termed Key-fruited. The maple, elms, birch, 
ash, and tulip trees are familiar examples among the 
deciduous trees, and the common arbor -vitae^ pine, and 
spruce among the evergreens or conifers. The seed of 
oaks, hickory, and nut-bearing trees generally, are not 
scattered any considerable distance from the parent 
stock, except through the agency of mice, squirrels, and 
other small animals, who carry them away for food, but 
occasionally leave them in a position conducive to future 
growth. It might be supposed that Nature would make 
no mistakes in placing seeds in the best possible position 
for germination, and were she at all chary in regard to 
waste, we might find it so, but being prodigal in all of 
her productions, the preservation of one seed in a thousand 
or even in a million is sufficient for her purpose. Or we 
may look npon this seeming extravagance as purposely 
intended to supply with food the hordes of animals that 
are known to live on seeds — the perpetuation of the 
species being dependent on what is left, after the animal 
creation have been Avell supplied. But we can readily 
see that a large portion of all the seeds that fall do not 
find congenial places for growth, eve^i if they be not 
interfered with by animals or man, for some drop in 
stony places, others upon the dead leaves, where they 
drj up and wither. Seeds of the large fleshy-fruited 
trees, as the apple, pear, plum, or oranges, lemons, and 
2 



26 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



the like, are enclosed in substances, the decay of which 
usually causes the death of their germs. i 

With these examples before us, we can readily say that 
while N"ature ^^doeth all things well" for her own use, 
man can and has improved upon her methods for supply- 
ing his own needs ; therefore, in raising trees from seed, 
we follow Nature's guidance only so far as her ways 
serve our purpose. We do not scatter acorns and hickory 
nuts over dry leaves in a forest, and expect them to 
grow more readily and better than when planted in a 
good artificially prepared soil and covered a proper depth. 
But with other kinds we find shade, which young 
seedlings receive as they come up in the forests essential, 
hence, we are obliged to provide it, when the same 
kinds are raised under wholly artificial conditions. 
These variations are mentioned here, because there are 
certain would-be teachers of arboricultural science, who 
are continually holding up Jfature or natural methods of 
propagating trees as the only true ones, and deprecating 
any departure therefrom. 

The seed of all trees and shrubs grow readily under 
what may be called artificial conditions, and we have 
only to take cognizance of their distinctive characteristic 
and provide for the same, in order to be successful in 
srrowdno: them. Seeds that are small and enclosed in a 
thin shell or husk, should not be kept for any consider- 
able time in a dry atmosj)here before planting, or buried 
deeply in the soil. The large and coarser kinds will 
withstand more exposure and ill-usage — but even these 
respond promptly and generally to good treatment. As 
the space at my disposal will not admit of giving specific 
directions on the management of all the difEerent species 
and varieties of trees in cultivation, I can only give 
briefly general rules and methods for raising trees and 
shrubs from seed. 

In the region where they are grown, or in similar lat- 



RAISING TKEES FROM SEED. 



27 



itudes and climates, all kinds of seed may be sown so 
soon as ripe. But when taken from one locality or 
country to another, variations in the time of sowing 
should be made to correspond with the change of climate. 
Although the proper, or natural time for planting seeds 
would seem to be immediately after their ripening, it is 
frequently impracticable to plant at such times, and is 
seldom done by those who make raising trees a si)ecialty, 
for if placed in the soil in autumn, mice, moles, and 
other animals are very likely to attack and make sad havoc 
with them before the growing season returns, and in 
hard tenacious soils the earth will often become so firmly 
packed over the seed during the winter, that the young 
sprouts frequently fail to br^ak through in the spring. 
In light friable soils, and where there are no vermin to 
destroy them (which is rarely the case), most kinds of 
tree seeds may be sown in the fall. 

There are, however, two species of our native maples. 
Scarlet and Silver-leaved, and also the different species of 
elms, the seeds of which mature in the spring or early 
part of the summer, and as they usually germinate soon 
after falling (at least those of the maples do), they 
should be sown as soon as ripe. Bub these are exceptions 
to the general rule. 

The seeds of a large proportion of deciduous trees 
may be preserved over winter by mixing them with clean, 
sharp, moist sand, and burying in the ground, covering 
only just enough to protect them from vermin and the 
changes of weather. A dry knoll or other well drained 
situation should be selected. Acorns, chestnuts, and 
and hickory nuts and seeds of the later ripening maples, 
locusts, three-thorned acacia, yellow wood, and hundreds 
of other similar kinds will keep perfectly in this way, 
and be found in excellent condition in spring, when they 
may be sown with, or without the sand in which they 
have been stored. 



28 



PKACTICAL rORESTKY. 



While all of the larger nuts, as well as maples^ tulips, 
elms, magnolias, and several other kinds, will not ger- 
minate after becoming once thoroughly dry, there are 
other kinds as the locust, yellow wood, acacias, and 
nearly all of the coniferae that may be kept in a cool, 
dry atmosphere a year or more, and some will retain their 
yitality for several years. There is also another class of 
trees, the seeds of which can scarcely be forced to ger- 
minate until they have been in the ground for two years, 
among them the common hawthorn {Cratcegus), and the 
red cedar {Jiiniperns), and closely allied species are 
familiar examples. 

PREPARIKG A SEED-BED. 

' For most of the deciduous trees the open field is a 
good situation for a seed-bed, no shade being required 
for the young seedlings, except in rare instances. The 
preparation of the soil should be most thorough, not 
only should it be plowed deep, but cross-plowed and 
pulverized with a harrow, until in fine tilth and free 
from all lumps and stone. If the land is not rich it 
should be made so, by liberal applications of very old 
and well decomposed barn-yard manure, or some other 
good fertilizer, but no fresh stable manure or other kind 
that will make the soil too open and loose, should be 
used. fWhen all is ready, the seed should be sown in 
drills far enough apart to admit of cultivation, with plow 
or cultivator. There are two methods of sowing, the 
single drill and in double or narrow beds. The first is 
more convenient for thorough and clean cultivation, but 
the latter is sometimes preferred, where the space to be 
devoted to the purpose is limited, or where it is desirable 
to raise a very large number of plants on a given area. 
Small seeds may be sown with a seed-drill, when con- 
venient, or the single drill may be opened with a plow 
or marker made for the purpose, or even opened with a 



RAIS*[KG TREES FROM SEED. 



29 



hoe drawn along by the side of a line for a guide. The 
depth of the trench must be varied according to the size 
and kind of seed to be sown, For maple, ash, locust, 
and similar kinds one-half inch of soil is sufficient cover- 
ing, but the larger nuts should be covered a little deeper. 
Judgment should be used in all cases, and the depth of 
covering be varied not only with the size of the seed but 
with the nature of the soil. If this is light and sandy, 
or contains so much vegetable matter that it does not 
become compact, and the surface hard after heavy rains, 
the seeds may be covered deeper than in one of an op- 
posite character. 

On sowing in what are termed double trenches or nar- 
row beds, a trench a foot wide and of proper depth is 




Fig. 2. — THE TREE DIGGER. 



opened, the soil being thrown upon one or both sides. 
The seeds are then scattered on the bottom of the trench, 
and the soil drawn back over them. 

The wide drills should be three or four feet apart, or 
at sufficient distance to admit of pruning and cultivation 
between them, and to give room for workmen to pass 
when hoeing and weeding the plants. Frequent stirring 
of the soil between the rows with plow and cultivator dur- 
ing the summer materially increases the growth of the 
plants, as well as facilitates the emission of side or 



30 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



lateral roots. /At the end of the first season, or certainl 
not later than the second, the plants should be dug up 
This may be done yery rapidly with spades, or faster and 

better with a tree digger rep- 
resented in fig. 2. This very j 
handy implement passes under ; 
the plants, cuts off the tap-root> 
if long, and at the same time 
leaving them standing upright 
in the row, from whence they 
can be readily pulled up by 
men following the digger, or 
left to be taken up when want- 
ed. Having used one of these 
implements for many years, I 
can speak from experience of 
its value, especially for lifting 
seedlings that have very long 
and coarse tap-roots, like the 
black walnut, hickories, and 
similar kinds. 

After the plants have been 
lifted, the long tap-root should 
be shortened if it has not been 
cut off with the digger. Some 
of the nut trees, like those 
mentioned above, will throv/ 
down a central or tap-root to 
the depth of two to three feet 
the first season, while the stem 
above may not be more than a 
foot high. Fig. 3 represents an 
average specimen of a one-year- 
old seedling black walnut. The 
tap-root of such a plant should be cut off at a, and the 
larger lateral roots going below this point either spread 
out or shortened. 




Fig. 3.— SEEDLING BLACK 
WALNUT. 



RAISIKG TREES FROM SEED. 



31 



The main object in shortening the tap-root is to force 
out side or lateral roots the following season, but it also 
renders transplanting less troublesome, as it would be 
yery inconvenient to dig trenches or holes three feet 
deep in which to set seedlings not more fchan one or two 
years old. These tap-roots are doubtless of value to 
trees growing thickly in the natural unbroken soil of a 
forest, and where there is little room for side or lateral 
roots to grow, without coming in contact with those of 
neighboring trees, and where it is necessary for roots to 
go deep to find moisture, as when growing on high and 
dry soils, but it is seldom that trees growing sparsely or 
in low moist soils retain their tap-roots many years, if 
they have them at all. Therefore they can only be con- 
sidered necessary appendages under certain conditions, 
none of which often exist in cultivated trees. 

I am well aw^are, that there are arboriculturists in this 
country who will not agree with me in this, for some 
often claim that the central or tap-root is a very essential 
part of a tree, and for this reason they advocate plant- 
ing seeds where the tree is to grow in order that it should 
be preserved intact. But with all due deference to the 
opinion of these gentlemen, my long experience with 
trees has shown me that tap-roots are but short-lived at 
best, except in rare instances, and only with trees grow- 
ing on dry, hard soils, where all the roots go down deep- 
ly in order to reach moisture. I have taken up thous- 
ands of trees from moist soils and of all ages, from one 
to twenty or more years old, and I never found one with 
a tap-root of any considerable size, and generally there 
was none at all on trees after they had reached the ago 
of a half dozen years or more. I have also seen hun- 
dreds of acres of our largest forest trees turned out by 
the roots by tornadoes, and by stump-pullers in clearing 
the land for canals and railroads, but not one in a hun- 
dred had anything like a tap-root. 



22 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



CHAPTER IV. 
TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS. 

The seedlings of forest trees raised under artificial 
conditions should always be transplanted while young, 
and generally at the close of the first season, or when one 
year old. In some instances where only a feeble growth 
has been made, or the kinds are of a dwarfish habit, the 
plants may remain in the seed-bed two or more years 
before remoyal, but as a rule, the first transplanting 
should be made earlier. In cold climates, and in soils 
where the frost is likely to lift the plants, or otherwise 
injure them, they should be taken up so soon as the first 
frosts have killed the leaves, and heeled-iii where they can 
be protected from cold. 

In warm climates the transplanting may be direct 
from the seed-bed to the nursery rows, or to the grounds 
where the trees are to grow, but it is seldom advisable or 
safe to set out small one-year-old seedlings in a forest 
where cultivation is not practicable, the better method 
being to set in nursery rows and give good cultivation 
for a few years before planting them where they are to 
remain permanently. When in nursery rows they are in a 
convenient position for training into any desirable form, 
and their roots will be materially increased in number 
by the frequent stirring of the soil in which they Eire 
growing. 

Nursery-grown trees, and those that have been frequent- 
ly transi^lanted while young, are re-transplanted with less 
labor and more certainty of living, than those that have 
not passed through these preparatory stages. I know of 
no tree that is at all difficult to transplant, if it has had 
proper culture while young." The hickories, tulips, and 
magnolias are generally considered the most sensitive of 



TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS. 



33 



all our native deciduous trees, but by beginning when 
they are young, and subjecting them to root-pruning as 
directed, and repeating the transplanting every three or 
four years, large masses of fine fibrous roots will be formed 
near the main stem, that will insure their successful re- 
moval, even when the trees are fifteen or twenty years old. 

Every time a tree is lifted from the earth in which it 
is growing, the ends of the fibers or larger roots are 
broken off, or at least disturbed to an extent that pre- 
vents their further elongation when again placed in 
contact vath the soil, but fibers push from the sides, and 
thus the number of roots is increased within the radius 
occupied by the longest, or those extending farthest 
from the main stem. It is by this transplanting and 
shortening of the leading roots that the arboriculturists 
are enabled to produce a mass of close compact fibrous 
roots that are easily preserved when removals are neces- 
sary or advisable, and the life of the plant is not en- 
dangered by the operation. For the reasons given, 
nursery-grown trees, or those raised under artificial con- 
ditions, are much better for planting than those that 
come up naturally in forests, but the latter can be sub- 
jected to the same preparatory operations and made val- 
uable, if it is commenced while they are young, or of 
moderate size. The treatment, however, to which forest 
seedlings should be subjected must vary somewhat ac- 
cording to the kind of tree, as well as the character of 
the roots, the latter often differing greatly in different 
soils. For instance, seedling trees found growing in low, 
moist soils, seldom have very long central or tap-roots, 
while on all dry uplands, the contrary is the case, as I 
observed on a preceding page. 

If the seedlings when taken from their natural habitats 
have an abundance of small, fibrous roots, they may be 
treated in the same manner as those from nurseries, the 
tops being pruned to give the plants the proper form. 



34 PEACTICAL FOEESTEY. 

It is always best, however, to prune seedlings from the 
forests a little more severely than those from a nursery, as 
the former will feel the change more on account of having 
been moved from a half shady position to one fully exposed 
to the sun. The amount of stem and branches to be left 
on seedlings obtained from the forest, must always be in 
proportion to the quantity and quality of the roots ; if 
the latter are few in number and weak, then but a email 
part of the stem should be allowed to remain. 

As an extreme of what may be considered severe 
pruning to insure success with seedling trees taken from 
the forest, I will cite my own experience in handling 
several thousand tulip trees {Liriodendron Tulipifera), 
Desiring to procure a number of these trees, more for 
experiment than anything else, I sent my workmen to 
the woods and adjoining fields that were partly overgrown 
with brush, to get the required number. Finding the 
seedlings had but few side roots, and but one or two 
long tap-roots reaching down into the subsoil, the spades 
were thrown aside and the trees pulled up with what few 
roots might adhere to them. They were of varying sizes, 
from two to eight feet high, with stems from the size of a 
pencil to an inch or more in diameter. The roots were 
almost entirely destitute of fibers, and resembled carrots 
more than the roots usually found on trees. All the 
larger trees were cut down to one foot, and the tap-root 
shortened to about the same length, or a little less. 
These stumps were planted in a light, sandy soil, in 
nursery rows, and given the usual cultivation, with a 
loss of less than five per cent. As the sprouts started, 
all except the strongest one nearest the top were rubbed 
off. Some made a growth of two feet or more the first 
season, and the next all would average three feet in 
hight. The short stump above the point where the 
new sprout started from the main stem was cut off 
smooth during the summer ; the wound soon healed 



TKANSPLANTIKG SEEDLINGS. 



35 



over, and was entirely obliterated in the next year or 
two. The third season the trees were transplanted^ and 
the roots found to be very numerous and in excellent 
condition. A few hundred of these trees I retained, and 
set them out in nursery rows four feet apart each way, 
where they remained three years more, at which time 
they were ten feet high, with large spreading, handsome 
heads, and a mass of roots that would have been pro- 
nounced perfect by the most exacting arboriculturist. 
A number of these trees are now growing in sight from 
my library window, and I am quite certain that they are 
not only larger, but more healthy and beautiful than any 
of their companions of the same age left in the forest 
from which they were taken. 

During the removal of trees from forests or nursery, 
it is quite important that the roots should not be exposed 
to drying winds or to the light, more than is necessary, 
and they need not be so exposed over five minutes at the 
most, when being dug up or set out. The roots should 
be covered so soon as taken from the ground, and kept 
moist until set out again, whether they are transported 
a long or short distance. A good way to protect the 
roots of trees, is to coat them with thin mud, or puddle 
them as it is termed. A few moments' time spent in 
making a mud hole, into which the roots are dipped as 
dug, or soon after, will often be the means of saving 
them and making a success of what might otherwise 
prove a failure. 

The preceding remarks relative to prumng both roots 
and branches, are applicable to deciduous trees only. 
Evergreens require different treatment, and will be con- 
sidered in another place. 



36 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



CHAPTER V. 
BUDDING AND GRAFTING. 

The propagation of woody plants by the process known 
as budding, consists in taking from one tree or shrub, a 
bud and transferring it to another. The plant upon 
which the bud is placed is called the stock. The limits 
of this operation are not very well defined, but for all 
practical purposes I may say that it is limited to the 
members of the same genus, or closely allied plants ; 
that is, oaks may be budded on oaks, chestnut on 
chestnut, and generally the nearer related the species, 
the more successful the operation. But like all other 
rules pertaining to the propagation of plants, there 
are exceptions, and occasionally we may find that the 
wood of two species belonging to the same genus, cannot 
be made to unite and form what is termed a union. 
There is always a preference in stocks belonging to the 
same genus, and the propagator seeks the best for his 
purpose. I may say, however, that as a rule, the weak 
and feeble growing should always be placed upon the 
strong growing, if rapid growth and long life is the 
object of propagation. 

Budding is usually performed in summer, soon after 
the buds or a portion of them are fully developed on the 
young wood of the present season's growth. The stock 
into which the buds are to be inserted must be in a simi- 
lar condition, although the stem or branch at the point 
of junction may be more than one year old, but in no 
case must the bark be so thick and rigid, that it cannot 
be readily separated from the wood beneath, because the 
bud is to be inserted under the bark of the stock, and 
unless this can be done the operation will fail. We have 



BUDDIKG AISTD GRAFTING. 



37 



to depend upon the assimilated or true sap to form a 
union between the bud and the stocky the same as we do 
on layers and cuttings to produce roots, for all the opera- 
tions are analogous, only in budding, the alburnous 
matter forms a union w^ith the same material in the 
stock, while in the layer and cutting, it is emitted in the 
form of roots. 

The proper time for budding trees must, of course, 
yary with the latitude, season, and kind of trees to be prop- 
agated; as some come forward earlier than others, but, as 
a rule, it can be performed as early 
in the season as good plump buds 
can be found at the axils of the 
leaves in shoots of the present 
season's growth. The upj)er and 
immature ones can, of course, be 
discarded, if it is necessary to 
commence budding before all are 
in fit condition for use. In fig. 4, 
a, we have a bud which is to be 
transferred to a stock; a knife is 
inserted about one inch below it 
and passed upward, and brought 
out about a half inch above, cut- 
ting out a piece of bark with a 
thick slice of wood of a form 
shown by the circular line in 
the figure. We now make a cut across the stock, cutting 
just through the bark, and another longitudinally down- 
ward, as shown in fig. 5, then insert the lower end 
of the bark containing the bud, under the bark of the 
stock at the point where the incisons meet, and press it 
down to its place. If the bark of the stock is firm, and 
does not part easily to admit the bud, the edges must be 
lifted so as to alloAv the bud to pass under it freely. If 
the piece of bark containing the bad does not pass corn- 



Fig. 4. 

THE BUD. 




THE STOCX 



38 PEAGTICAL PORESTRT. 



pletely under, then cut it off at the upper end eyen witb 
the cross-cut in the stock, so that it will fit in smoothly, 
In fig. 6 a bud is shown, taken out after the upper end 
has been cut off, as directed, and on this is also shown i 
portion of a leaf -stalk, usually left attached for cony en 
ience in handling the bud, as w^ell as to protect it from 
injury. After the bud is inserted, it is secured in placq 
by a ligature, which may be of bass bark, a strip of thin 
cloth, woollen yarn, or any similar material that will hold 
the bud and bark in place, until a union is formed. The 
point of the bud and leaf-stalk attached should, of 
course, be left exposed. The stock into which a bud is 
inserted should not, as a rule, be oyer an inch in diame- 
ter or less than a half inch, although much 
larger and smaller are often used. After the 
bud has firmly united with the stock — which 
will usually be in two or three weeks — the 
ligature should be loosened or remoyed entirely. 
The bud is not expected to push into growth 
until the following season, at which time the 
stock aboye the bud should be cut away and the 
bnd allowed to grow undisturbed. If sprouts 
appear on the stock J;hey must be remoyed, in 
j..^ g order that all the strength may go into the bud. 
the' BUD The horizontal incision in the stock is some- 
REMovED. ^jj^gg made below or at the bottom of the per- 
pendicular one, and the bud thrust under the bark, but 
upward, or the reyerse of the more usual method, this 
permits the downward flow of the sap to reach the bud 
in am^ore direct course than when the cross-cut is made 
aboye it. It is not a conyenient method, but is some- 
times desirable when tlie flow of sap is rather sluggish, 
as it often is late in the season. 

When a bud is taken from the shoot in the usual way, 
there is a small slice of wood remaining under the eye, 
which, in budding some kinds of plants^ it may be de- 




BUDDING AIsTD GRAETIKG. 



39 



sirable to remoye, althongli it is an almost universal 
practice in this country to allow this wood fco remain, 
and doubtless in a majority of cases, it is best to do so ; 
but there are instances where a more permanent union 
will be secured if it is re- 
moved. With kinds of trees 
like the magnolias, horse- 
chestnuts, and common sweet 
chestnut, that have a rather 
thick bark on the young 
shoots, better success will be 
attained by the removal of the 
wood from the bud. When 
this is to be done, the shoots 
used must be in a condition to 
allow the bark to peel readily 
from the wood, without tear- 
ing or breaking the fibers. 
Hold the branch in the left 
hand with the smaller end to- 
wards you; insert the knife- 
blade about one inch below 
the bud, cutting a little deeper 
than you would if the wood 
were to be left in, pass the 
knife under and above the bud, 
some three-quarters of an inch, 
but not out to the surface, but 
withdraw the blade, and cut 
across through the bark only 
about a half an inch above 
the bud, then with finger and Fig. 7.— taking off the bud. 
thumb lift up the bark, at 

the same time press it gently forward, and you will re- 
move the bark and bnd (fig. 7) a, without injuring it, 
leaving the piece of wood 5, adhering to the branch. 




40 



PRACTICAL FOEESTEY. 



This is a much better and more scientific method of re- 
moYing the wood than to pick it out with the point of a 
knife, or to remove with a goose-quill as sometimes rec- 
ommended. This concaye piece of bark, with the bud 
attached, will fit the conyex surface of the stock very 
closely, and on large stocks, and with buds from large 
shoots, taking out the wood is often advisable. 

Another style of budding called the annular, and rep- 
resented in fig. 8 may be practised in summer on 
small shoots of the season's growth 
or in spring, so soon as the bark 
will peel readily from stock and 
cion. It consists in taking a ring 
of bark with bud attached from one 
tree, and after a similar ring is re- 
moved from the. stock, the former 
is fitted into its place. This ring 
of bark may be an inch wide and 
fitted to stocks from the size shown 
up to an inch or more in diameter. 
It is always best to have the ring of 
bark wide enough to admit of plac- 
ing ligatures around the stock above 
and below the bud, in order to hold 
it in place. When performed in 
spring, it is best to use waxed strips 
of cloth, to cover the wound and ex- 
clude the air, but late in summer and 
with bark from shoots of the present season, strips of 
bark such as used for ordinary budding, will answer for 
ligatures. In this style of budding, the branch from 
which the ring of bark is taken, should be nearly the 
same size as that of the stock to which it is affixed. 

In performing these operations an implement called a 
budding-knife is required, and they are made of various 
sizes and patterns, and are usually to be obtained at al- 




Fi^'. 8. 

ANNULAR BUDDING. 



BUDDIi^G AKD GRAFTING. 



41 



most any seed store. The imported bud- 
ding knives have usually either a thin, 
blunt-pointed ivory, or bone handle, or a 
piece of bone inserted into a horn handle, 
this being used to lift the bark of the 
stock, to facilitate the inserting of the 
bud under it. Many gardeners and 
nurserymen still use these old forms of 
budding knives, but they are clumsy 
alfairs, and not adpated for rapid work. 
Any small pocket knife with the blade 
rounded, and made thin and smooth, 
will answer fully as well for the purpose 
as the most costly imported ivory- 
handled knife. I have never seen a 
knife that I liked better than the one 
shown full size in figure 9, which I first 
saw in use at the old Linnaean Nurseries, 
at Flushing, N". Y., some thirty years 
ago. Unfortunately, however, these 
knives are not in the trade, and when 
wanted have to be made to order. But 
by purchasing cheap knives at the hard- 
ware stores, and throwing away the 
blades, and have new ones put in, such 
knives do not cost any more, or in fact 
quite as much, as the rugular trade bud- 
ding-knife. The rounded end is used 
for lifting the bark on the stock, and 
far ro.ore convenient than a knife with 
an ivory handle, which must be reversed 
in the hand every time a bud is inserted, 
and this is a waste of valuable time, be- 
sides the ivory or bone handles are far 
more likely to become rough, and scratch 
the tender cambium layers than a piece of polished steel, 



1 



Fig. 9, 

BUDDIIsG KNIFE. 



42 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



But it is really immaterial what form of knife is used, 
provided it has a keen edge, and is dexterously handled. 

GRAFTING DECIDUOUS TREES. 

Grafting is governed by the same physiological princi- 
ples as budding;, and there must exist an affinity be- 
tween stock and cion, if not, a permanent union is im- 
possible. The principal difference between budding and 
grafting, is, that in the latter a larger section of the 
plant to be propagated is used, and it can be performed 
upon a greater variety of plants while they are in a 
dormant condition. The art of grafting is one of the 
most ancient methods known of multiplying individual 
species and varieties of plants. 

The implements used for grafting are : a small saw 
for cutting off the heads of large stocks or branches of 
the trees, a good strong knife with thick back to make 
clefts in the stock ; a small knife to prepare the cions 
with ; a wedge, grafting chisel, and a small mallet. 
There are also many other implements used for different 
modes of grafting, but they are really not essential, 
except when the operator desires to cut a cion or cleft of 
some peculiar form. In addition to the implements, 
bass strings, such as are used in budding, for tying in 
the grafts, or grafting- wax, to cover the wounds, and 
protect them from air and water are necessary. 

The primitive compositition used for covering wounds 
and cuts made in grafting, v>^as clay and cow manure. 
Any good kind of clay was taken, and two parts of this 
was mixed with one part of cow manure, all well beaten 
together in order to make it as tough as possible. Some- 
times a little finely chopped grass was added to give it 
toughness. This composition was in common use more 
than two thousand years ago, and is still used by gar- 
deners in grafting certain kinds of plants that have a 



BUDDIi^G AKD GRAFTING. 



43 



soft^ sponge-like bark that might be injured by composi- 
tions containing oil or grease. 

The composition of grafting wax is almost as variable 
as the ideas of the men who use it, and there are scores 
of recipes for making it. One of the oldest, and, we 
think, one of the best for out-door use, is composed of 
four parts of common rosin, two parts of beeswax, and 
about one and a half parts of tallow ; all melted together 
over a moderate fire, and well stirred before the mixture 
cools. If it is to be used in very cool weather, add a 
little more tallow, or if in warm a little less. In Europe, 
Burgundy pitch is more generally used in making grafting 
wax than in this country. Some of the French nursery- 
men recommend the following : Melt together two 
pounds twelve ounces of rosin, and one pound and eleven 
ounces of Burgundy pitch. At the same time melt nine 
ounces of tallow, pour the latter into the former while 
both are hot, and stir the mixture thoroughly. Then 
add eighteen ounces of red ochre, dropping it in gradually 
and stirring the mixture at the same time. After the 
composition has cooled sufficiently, work it well with the 
hands. For out-door work in cool weather this wax is 
rather hard, but if carried in a vessel where it can bo 
occasionally warmed it is readily applied, and is quite 
durable. 

All the above kinds of wax may be spread upon cloth 
or tough paper with a brush when warm, and after it 
has cooled the paper or cloth may be cut up into narrow 
strips of any convenient size. In what is called splice or 
whip grafting, these strips of waxed cloth are very con- 
venient for wrapping about the parts united. A French 
mastic known as Lefort's Liquid Grafting Wax" is 
made by melting one pound of common rosin over a 
gentle fire and adding one ounce of beef tallow, the latter 
to be well stirred in. Take it from the fire, let it cool 
down a little, and then mix in eight ounces of alcohol. 



44 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



The alcohol will cool down the mixture so rapidly that iti i 
may be necessary .1^ put it on the fire again. The ; 
utmost care must be exercised to prevent the alcohol 
taking fire. This mastic is highly recommended by the ; 
nurserymen of France, and it has been used to some 
extent in this country for several years. It is imported 
in tin boxes, and usually kept on sale at seed stores. 

I might give many other recipes for making grafting 
wax and mastics, but believe that the above are the best, 
and that the one made simply of rosin, beeswax, and 
tallow is as good as any ever invented. Some nursery- 
men of late years have substituted linseed oil for tallow, : 
and while it may answer for some kinds of trees, I am 
inclined to think it is injurious to those with very thin 
bark. I have known several instances where losses 
have occurred that were attributed to the use of oil in 
making the wax in grafting. 

In all the different modes of grafting, great care should 
be observed in having the external surface of the wood ! 
of the stock and cion, to be exactly even, no matter 
whether the external surface of the bark is even or not. 
This allows the new cells, which form between the bark 
and wood, of both stock and cion to unite and form a 
channel, through which the sap can readily pass. The 
sap ascends through the wood of the stock into that of 
the cion, causing the leaves to expand, which, in their 
tc./n assimilate it, preparatory to its return to stock and 
roots below. 

The time for grafting most kinds of woody plants in 
the open air is in the spring, just before or at the time 
the sap begins to liquify, varying the time to suit differ- 
ent species, for experience has demonstrated, that there 
are some which may be operated upon much earlier than 
others. The shoots or young twigs to be used for cions, 
may be taken from the parent stock in autumn, and pre- 
served in earth, charcoal, sawdust, moss, or some similar 



BUDDING AKD GRAFTING. 



45 



material, where they will be cool — not frozen — and just 
sufficiently moist to prevent shrivelling. Cions of ripe 
wood may also be cut at the time they are used, but their 
vitality is often weakened by the severity of the weather, 
and their delicate tisGues injured to such an extent, that 
they will not form what is called in grafting " granula- 
tion,'' (although it is precisely the same as the callus on 
cuttings), which fills up any small interstices that may 
exist between the stock and cion, allowing a communica- 
tion between. Wood of one season's growth is prefer- 
able for cions to older (except in rare instances), and it 
should always be firm and fully matured, and selected 
from the most healthy and vigorous branches. As there 
are many hundreds of different modes of grafting, I 
shall only mention a few of the most simple, because the 
difference between the larger part is so slight, as to be 
scarcely worthy of a different name. 

Cleft Grafting, — This method is principally used upon 
large stocks or on the branches of old trees. The stock 
is first cut off at the 
point where it is de- 
sirable to insert the 
cion; it is then split 
with a large knife or 
chisel, being careful 
to divide the bark, 
and at the same time 
leave the edges 
smooth, as shown in 
fig. 10, when the 
knife is withdrawn, the cleft may bo kept open by insert- 
ing a wedge made of iron or hard-wood. The cion (fig. 
10, a), should be two or three inches long, bearing at least 
two good buds. The lower end is cut wedged-shaped as 
shown, in order that it shall fit the stock. In stocks of 
an inch or more in diameter, two cions, one on each side 





Fig. 10. 

CLEFT GRAFTING. 



Fiff. 11. 

CLEFT GRAFTING. 



46 



PRACTICAL PORESTRY. 



as shown in fig. 11 may be inserted, and if both grow, 
one can be cut away. In stocks of less size, one cion 
will be sufficient, and the top of the stock will be cut off 
with an upward slope as shown in fig. 11, a. After the 
cions are inserted, the entire exposed surface of the wood 
should be coyered with grafting wax or waxea cloth. 

Crown Grafting. — This is but a mere modification of 
the cleft craft, but instead of splitting the stock to re- 
ceive the cion, the latter is sloped off thinly on one side 




Fig. 12. —CROW GRAFTING. 



and slipped under the bark, as is done in budding, a slit 
having first been made in the bark of the proper length. 
This form of grafting is usually performed a little later 
in the season than the last, in order that the bark may 
be separated from the wood of the stock. The cions 
used are cut earlier in the season, and kept dormant in 
some cool place until wanted for use. Another form of 
crown grafting is shown in fig. 12, the cion is cut 
about half-way through as shown, and the wood removed, 
leaving a square shoulder at top and opposite to a good 
bud. From the stock d, d, d, d, the bark is removed to 
admit the cion, and one to four cions as shown, are 



BUDDIKG Aiq^D GRAFTING. 



47 



fitted to a stock, and then all lield in place by liga- 
tures of waxed cloth, and the top of the stock also covered 
with wax. This mode of grafting is practised on very 
large stocks such as are not suitable for cleft grafting. 

Side or Triangular Grafting, — This is a modification 
of cleft or crown crafting, and instead of splitting the 




Fig. 14. — SPLICE OR 

Fig. 13.— TRIANGULAR GRAFT. TONGUE GRAFTING. 



stock, a triangular incision is made in the side of the 
stock, as shown in fig. 13, r, and the cion cut in the same 
form and fitted into the cleft as shown. 

Splice or Tongue Grafting, — When the stock and cior 
ire nearly of the same size, splice grafting is the most 
3onYenient and certain method known. The stock is cut 
Dff w^ith an upward slope, and a small cleft or split is 
made in it, about midway on the slope, forming a tongue, 
rhe cion is cut in the same way, but with a downward 
slope, with a corresponding tongue, and the two are tl>en 



48 



rRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



neatly fitted together, the tongue on one entering that of 
the other, as shown in fig. 14. Ligatures of waxed cloth 
or strong paper must then be applied to hold the cion in 
place. This is a conyenient and rapid mode of grafting 
small stocks or roots in the house or open ground, and is 
largely employed in grafting the apple during the winter 
months, the grafted plants being packed away in sand or 
earth, until the time arrives for planting out in spring. 



CHAPTER VI. 
GRAFTING CONIFERS. 

Propagating conifers by grafting is confined principal- 
ly to yarieties and rare species, of which seed are not 




Fig. 15.— CION OF PINE. 



readily obtainable, or that are not readily multiplied by 
cuttings or layers. In this country, grafting of eyer- 
greens is usually confined to plants raised under glass. 



GKAFTIKG COXIFERS. 



49 



or those placed in frames for the purpose^ where the 
grafter can control the temperature and supply moisture 
as required, until a perfect union between stock and cion 
has taken place. Grafting conifers in the open air may 
sometimes be done quite successfully, especially upon 
some of the species 
of arbor - yitass, 
yews, larch, and 
taxodiums, but as 
a rule it is best to 
use small stocks, 
and have them pot- 
ted in the fall, and 
then keep them in 
a cool green-house 
or frames, and then 
graft as they com- 
mence to grow late 
in winter or early 
spring, the cions 
being either in 
a dormant condi- 
tion, or the buds 
but slightly ad- 
vanced. 

The cions should 
always be of the 
previous season's growth, and a portion of the leaves left 
attached. The stocks also must not be denuded of their 
foliage, and a convenient method of grafting is what may 
be termed a side graft, the cion being inserted into a 
cleft, made in the side of the stock, and held in place 
with the usual ligature of bass bark as in budding. The 
plants are kept in a somewhat confined atmosphere, and 
frequently syringed overhead until the cion has united, 
then the stock above it is cut away. 
3 




Fii;-. 16. — GRAFTED PINE. 



50 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



Eyergreen trees that do not belong to tlie coniferae^ 
can also be grafted quite successfully in the same way, 
in fact, usually are given the same or similar treatment. 
The cions may be one to three inches long or even longer 
in some instances, varying according to the species prop- 
agated. Of course, in grafting conifers the stock and 
cion must be of near allied species, the pines may 

be worked on pines, 
spruce on spruce, etc. 
It is always advisable 
to select a strong 
and vigorous growing 
species as a stock for 
a weaker one. What 
is called terminal 
grafting is sometimes 
practised quite suc- 
cessfully, and in hg. 
15 is shown a cion of 
pine prepared for in- 
serting in a stock, 
and in fig. 16, the 
same is shown in 
place, and fastened 
by a narrow ligature. 
The leaves at the 
point where the cleft 
is made in the stock 
are wholly removed, while a few below are shortened to 
allovf of applying the ligature as well as inserting the graft. 

Another mode of terminal grafting as sometimes em- 
ployed on the balsam fir, is shown in fig. 17, the cleft 
being made in the end of a shoot, dividing the terminal 
buds, and the cion inserted between as shown. 

The deciduous conifers, like the larch, taxodiums, salis- 
buria, etc., may be multiplied quite rapidly by grafting 




TERMINAL GRAFT. 



CO^rtFEfi^ FROM CUTTIKGS. 



51 



on pieces of their own roots, or those of closely allied 
species, and in the same manner as other trees are root- 
grafted, and during the winter months. 



CHAPTER VIL 

CONIFERS FROM CUTTINGS. 

There are many species and yarieties of the coniferas 
that are readily propagated by cuttings. It is practised 
extensively with species of which seed cannot be obtained, 
also with varieties upon whose seed little dependence 
could be placed, of producing from them plants like the 
parent tree. Varieties of evergreens are no more likely 
to come true from seed than varieties of the pear or 
apple; consequently more direct methods of propagation 
must be adopted. The arbor-vitass, juni23ers, yews, tor- 
reya, cephalotoxus, podocarpus, cryptomerias, and species 
belonging to several other genera, are quite readily prop- 
agated by either cuttings of ripe or green wood. Some 
will grow quite readily without artificial heat, especially 
in the Middle and Southern States, but success is more 
certain if all are placed where the temperature can at all 
times be under the perfect control of the propagator. 
In warm climates, a mere frame covered with glazed 
sash, or thin cloth, may answer, but in cold ones it is 
better to have some means of giving the cuttings a little 
extra heat during the winter months. An ordinary cool 
green-house is perhaps, all things considered, the best 
kind of structure in which to propagate evergreens from 
cuttings, especially in cold climates. Cuttings are made 
of the ends of the smaller branches, and mainly of the 
ripe one-year-old wood, but with some kinds a little of 
the two-year-old may be taken at the base of the cutting. 



52 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



The cuttings should be of good size, that is from three 
to four inches long, and the leaves on the lower half cut 
away, and the lower end of the cuttings made smooth, a 
sharp knife always being used for this purpose. Fig. 18 
shows a cutting of arbor-vitag prepared for planting, 
and fig. 19 one of the Lawson cypress (^Guj^ressus Law- 
soniana). Sand is usually preferred to soil in which to 
rear cuttings of evergreens, and it may be put in boxes 



use. To make a channel in which to set the cuttings, use 
the edge of a pane of window glass, sinking it to the proper 
depth in the sand, and straight across one side of the box. 
Set the cuttings in this close together, until it is filled, 
press down the sand firmly against them, and then make 
another crease in the sand, about two inches distant from 
the first, and proceed in this manner until the box is 
full. Apply water to further settle the sand about the 
cuttings, then place the boxes in the shade until roots are 




Eig. 18. — A.RBOS-YITiE CUTTING. 



of convenient size for 
handling, or in larger 
frames or on benches 
fitted up for the pur- 
pose, but boxes will 
usually be found most 
convenient, as it enables 
the operator to change 
his cuttings from one 
place to another, should 
it be found necessary to 
secure a proper tem- 
perature. The boxes 
used may be four or 
five inches deep, and 
eighteen inches or tw 
feet square, and whe 
filled with moist, sharp 
sand, they are ready for 



COKIFER^ FROM CUTTIKGS. 



53 



produced, which in some cases will take six months, 
while in others they will appear in a less number of 
weeks. Our object in all sucli cases is to give the cut- 
tings a chance to throw out roots before the top is forced 
into growth, as will usually follow placing the cuttings 
in full light and in a warm atmosphere. 

In all cases where ripe cuttings are employed for prop- 
agating evergreens, time must be given for the cuttings 
to become well furnished with- a callus on the lower end, 
before they are forced into 
growth, else they are certain 
to fail. Sometimes the cut- 
tings are kept through win- 
ter in a moderately warm 
room, and in spring placed 
in a hot-bed, where they 
will receive bottom heat to 
assist in the production of 
roots, and forcing a growth 
of the tops. The propaga- 
tor can always learn how 
his cuttings are progressing, 
by taking out a few oc- 
casionally and examining 
the condition of the callus 
at their base. If after 
they have been planted two 
months or more no cal- 
lus is to be seen, he must give a little more heat, or if 
they are in a cold frame in the open ground, add a little 
more covering. Small evergreens are sometimes potted 
and kept in a green-house during winter, and when they 
have made a new growth, this is taken off for cuttings, 
which grow very quickly when placed in a confined at- 
mosphere, and a high temperature. But such methods 
of propagation are seldom practised, except by nursery- 




Fio-. 19. — cuTTmG OF cypress. 



54 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



men who have all the necessary facilities for the rapid 
multiplication of the different kinds of tender as well as 
hardy plants. 

LAYERS. 

All the different species of evergreens that can be prop- 
agated from cuttings may also be layered in the same 
manner as directed for deciduous trees, but it is seldom 
practised to any considerable extent, except w4th dwarf 
and trailing species. Plants produced by layer are usually 
rather straggling in habit, and if of naturally upright 
growing species, it requires more pruning and care to 
get the plants into good form than with those raised 
from cuttings. A mere twisting, coiling, or notching of 
the branch, so as to partially separate the wood and bark 
at the joint to be covered by earth, is usually all that is 
required to increase the production of roots. Several 
branches may be layered from one plant, or all that are 
in a convenient position to be bent down and covered 
with earth. 



CHAPTER VIIL 

DECIDUOUS TREES FROM CUTTINGS. 

There are quite a number of different species of trees 
that are usually propagated from cuttings of the ripe 
wood, instead of from seed, as it requires less skill to 
multiply them in this way than any other. Among these 
I may mention the willows, poplar, buttonwood, a few of 
the maples, some of the alders, etc. Those w^iich grow 
f reely,like the Avillows and poplars, require no special prep- 
aration, and the cuttings may be taken off in spring or 
fall in warm climates, and immediately planted out, and 
the cuttings may be of almost any size, from a few inches 
long to several feet, and be made of one-year-old wood. 



DECIDUOUS TREES PROM CUTTINGS. 



55 



or that which is older. But with some other kinds, like 
the JSTegundo maple, and the buttonwood, the cuttings 
should be made up in the fall, and from wood of the cur- 
rent season's growth, cut into sections of from ten to 
fifteen inches in length, and then heeled-in in some warm, 
moist place, either in a cellar or in the open ground where 
they will not freeze, and at the same time be kept sufficient- 
ly cool to preyent growth. In spring these cuttings may 
be taken out and planted in trenches made with a plow or 
spade, and deep enough to admit of covering the cuttings 
nearly their entire length, and the soil should be pressed 
firmly about them, after which they should receive the 
same care as seedlings, in a similar soil and climate. 

In making cuttings it is best to cut just below a bud, 
and square across the wood, for the base of the cutting, 
but the upper end may be sloping, although it will make 
little difference, except with those kinds which have a 
large pith, or those that do not produce roots very freely. 
The object in making up the cuttings some months before 
planting, is to give time for a callus to form on the ex- 
posed wood, a process that always precedes the emission 
of roots from cuttings. It is really aiming at the pro- 
duction of roots in advance of the pushing of the buds 
into growth, and while we may not always accomplish 
this, we can at least secure a callus, which is a step gained 
in the right direction. All such cuttings produce roots 
more freely in a moist soil than in a dry one, and in dry 
climates it is a good plan to cover the entire surface of 
the cutting bed with some kind of mulch, in order to keep 
the ground moist and cool during the summer months. 
The cuttings, when rooted, should be treated the same as 
trees raised from seed. 

PROPAGATION^ BY LAYERING. 

Layers are really nothing m-ore than a form of cutting, 
the only difference being that they are allowed to adhere 



56 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



or remain attached to the parent stock — drawing suste- 
nance therefrom until roots are emitted, after which they 
are detached and become individual plants. In makino* 
layers of trees or shrubs, we bend down a branch, and 
cover that portion with earth upon which we wish to 
produce roots. Fig. 20 sliows a layered branch buried 
in the soil. An incision is usually made on the under 
side of the branch before it is laid down, and the knife 
inserted just below a bud if there is one convenient, pass- 
ing into the wood, and then an inch or more lengthwise, 
the branch forming what is termed a tongue, as at a, 
A hooked peg may be employed to hold the layer in place. 




Fi^. 20.— LAYER. 



c, or a stone laid on it, as it is quite important the 
branch should be held firm in jDlace. If the branch is 
large, the end may be tied up to a stake, as shown at 1, 
It is not often that forest trees, except some ornamental 
varieties, are propagated in this way, but it is well enough 
to know how to do it, when necessary to increase the 
stock of some choice or rare specimen. Layers may be 
made at almost any season, but they will root sooner if 
made when the trees are growing rapidly, than at any 
other time. 

Some kinds of trees will produce roots when layered 



DECIDUOUS TREES FROM CUTTIKGS. 



57 



without cutting of the branch, and exposing the albur- 
num — in fact, all will, in time, but the surest way is to 
cut the branch as described. With some kinds, roots 
will be emitted so slowly that the layer must remain at 
least two seasons before it will be safe to sever it from the 
parent stock. Evergreens may be layered in the same 
way as deciduous trees, but the operation* should always 
be performed during the period of active growth, else the 
wound made on the layer is likely to be covered with 
rosin, which may prevent the emission of roots. 

Sometimes a part of a tree or a small branch will vary 
from the original; when this occurs on a large tree and 
where the branch cannot be made 
to reach the ground, we are com- 
pelled to elevate the soil, or some 
similar material to the part we wish 
to propagate, unless it is some spe- 
cies which can be readily propagated 
from cuttings, buds, or grafting. 
If we desire to obtain a layer, we 
have only to place a pot or box of 
soil near the branch, so that it can 
be covered with earth, the same as 
if near the ground. After the 

branch is lavered, the soil surround- — - 

ing it must be kept moist ^ntil ^^'"^ ^^^^^ 
roots are produced. Fig. 21 shows a branch layered in 
a pot from which a piece has been taken from one side 
to admit the branch; this crevasse is closed with a piece 
of board or shingle placed on the inside of the pot, 
after which the pot is filled with soil. If the pot is sur- 
rounded with cloth or moss, it will in a measure prevent 
drying, and less frequent waterings will be required. 




58 



PK ACTIO AL PORESTRY. 



CHAPTER IX. 
SEEDLINGS OF CONIFERS. 

A large proportion of the cone-bearing trees are ever- 
greens^ but there are a few^ as the larch^ and taxodiums, 
that are deciduous, casting their leaves in the autumn 
when fully ripe^ or touched by frost. In propagating 
from seed, all require essentially the same treatment, 
which is, however, quite different from the ordinary 
deciduous class already referred to. While the seeds of 
coniferae are really no more delicate, or their germination 
more uncertain than other kinds of tree seeds, still, the 
seedlings require more care from the time they appear 
above ground, until they are transplanted to the field or 
nursery rows. Young seedlings of coniferse, that spring 
up in the forests, where there is -deeper shade than that 
which surrounds those of deciduous trees, are quite 
sensitive to light, temperature, conditions of soil, and 
atmosphere, as regards moisture. As a rule, all seeds of 
conifers should be sown where the young plants can be 
protected from the constant direct rays of the sun for 
the first few weeks of their existence, and partial shade 
is desirable throughout the entire first season. 

Sometimes stakes are driven by the sides of the beds, 
on which poles are placed to form a support for a cover- 
ing of thin cloth, or of evergreen boughs where they can 
be obtained, but in windy locations such temporary 
structures are liable to be blown down, destroying the 
plants underneath them. Besides the winds sweep over 
the surface of the seed-bed dispelling the surface 
moistures, which must be made good by liberal 'and 
judicious waterings, or the seedlings soon perish. Large 
numbers of seedlings are raised, it is true, under such 
arrangements in favorable situations, but a better pro- 



SEEDLIi^GS OF COKIFER^. 



59 



tection is furnislied by board frames and lath shades as 
shoAvn in figure 22. The frames may be made of inch 
boards or plank, and should be one foot high, four feet 
wideband of any desirable length. To make the lath 
shades, take ordinary ceiliug lath four feet long, lay them 
parallel, and two inches or a little less apart, and fasten 
them in their places by nailing across their ends two 
strips of boards three inches wide and three feet long. 
This size of shade is more conyenient for handling than 
larger ones, and being so light are not liable to be broken. 
These shades laid on the frames will admit air and 
moisture, and while admitting the direct rays of the sun 
to eyery part of the bed during the day, they will not 




Fig. 22.— LATH CO VEERED FRAME. 



remain long enough upon any place to cause injury. 
The constant change of the sun and shade thus secured, 
is just what is required by delicate seedling coniferae, 
and some few other kinds of trees, that will be mentioned 
further on. 

Seeds sown in frames as described are under the con- 
trol of the cultiyator. They can be watered when it is 
required, more or less shade giyen if desirable, besides 
being in a position to be protected in winter, should their 
hardiness be doubted. Occasionally it may be found 
necessary to increase the temperature of the seed-bed, or 
to protect the seed from long continued cold rains. 
This can be readily done by substituting for the lath, 
glazed hot-bed sash, that are usually, and should always 
be found as the ordinary adjuncts of eyery good garden. 



60 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



The soil in which the seeds of coniferao are sown 
should be of a lights porous nature, and if not naturally 
of this kind, it should be made so by liberal additions of 
leaf -mould and sand. If, after watering, the surface be- 
comes ha/d, and a firm crust is formed, it is not light 
enough, and more sand or mould should be added. Pure 
sand will answer well for a sed-bed, if a little liquid 
manure be added occasionally after the seedlings com- 
mence to show their second set of leaves. 

SOWIi^G THE SEEDS. 

Small evergreen seeds, like those of the arbor-vitaes, 
may be scattered broadcast on the surface, and then be 
covered by sifting soil over them, but those of the larger 
size should be sown in drills from four to six inches apart, 
and not so close in the drill that the growing plants 
are liable to be crowded. When sown in drills, the soil 
between them can be stirred if necessary, and the weeds 
more readily removed than when the seed is sown broad- 
cast. 

The time for sowing will depend much on the climate 
and the kind of seed. Such as can be safely kept through 
the winter, should be sown in the spring, although some 
of the more hardy species may be sown in autumn, but 
there is often danger of their destruction during winter 
by mice and other vermin. The usual course is to keep 
the seed over winter in their cones, as gathered from the 
tree, or if shelled out, in paper bags, stored in a dry, 
cool room. Should they seem too dry in spring, their 
germination may be materially hastened by soaking a 
few hours in tepid water. After the water is drained 
off, the seed may be mixed with dry sand or gypsum, 
which will take up the surplus moisture, and facilitate 
the ready separation of the seed when sowing. Very small 
seed should be covered an eighth of an inch, the coarser 
ones, like thos^ of the nut-pine, a half inch, but not more. 



SEEDLIKGS OF COJS^IFER^. 



61 



Moisture and heat are requisites of germination ; con- 
sequently, if the soil is dry at the time of sowing, or dry 
weather follows, water must be applied to the bed from 
time to time as required, but extremes in giving too 
much or too little must be carefully avoided. This is 
a nice point, and can be determined only by the experi- 
ence, skill, and good judgment of the cultivator. 

The seeds of most of our coniferae germinate freely and 
quickly, but the young seedlings, when in what is termed 
the first or seed-leaf stage, fig. 23, 
are extremely sensitive to any con- 
siderable change of temperature or 
hydrometical condition of the air or 
soil, and, in fact, this is considered 
the critical period in the life of the 
young plant. If the weather is 
warm and wet, the soft succulent 
stems soon rot, or damp off, as it is 
termed. Dusting the surface of the 
bed and plants with fine dry sand, 
or what is still better, burnt and 
pulverized clay, will usually prevent 
further loss, unless the Aveather 
should continue unfavorable for 
many days. On the other hand, 
water must not be withheld in dry 
time for fear of causing the plants 
to rot, for wilting caused by want of moisture is almost 
as fatal to the plants as too much. After the second, or 
true leaves appear, the critical period may be considered 
past, and ordinary care only will be required during the 
remainder of the season. But it is well to apply water as 
needed throughout the summer. If the seedlings are 
raised in a cold climate some slight protection may be 
given during winter. It is not necessary or advisable to 
try to keep out the frost, but merely to spread something 




Fio:. 23.— SEEDLING PINE. 



62 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



over the frames to preyent the sudden and alternate 
freezing and thawing of the ground. If snow comes 
early, and drifts in and around the plants, this of itself 
will be sufficient protection so long as it remains. If the 
plants make a good growth the first season, or are likely 
to be crowded during the second, they should be trans- 
planted, but if there is room for them to grow they may 
remain in the seed-bed two years and be transplanted in 
the spring of the third season. But as soon as they are 
large enough to handle conveniently, whether it be at 
the end of the first or second season's growth, they should 
be carefully lifted and set out in nursery rows as recom- 
mended for deciduous trees. 

In most cases planting out may be done with a dibble, 
as the roots or young seedling conifers are usually quite 
small, but well furnished wdch fibers. When transplant- 
ing, great care should be given to the protection of the 
roots from the sun, as well as to keep them moist. The 
time to transplant is as early in spring as the ground will 
permit of proper preparation, and even then a close exam- 
ination of the roots will usually sho\v that growth has 
commenced, although the buds give no indication of the 
movement of the sap. When first set out in nursery rows 
the seedlings should be set not more than six inches apart 
in the rows, but so soon as the branches of one plant touch 
those of another, every alternate plant should be re- 
moved, or all taken up and replanted. The latter method 
is the one usually adopted by nurserymen w^ho desire to 
make low stocky trees, with an abundance of fibrous 
roots, because every time the tree is removed, the lateral 
growth of the larger roots is checked, and new ones grow 
from their sides. But the value of the trees and the pur- 
pose for which they are raised should be considered, and 
their treatment in the nursery be in accordance with the 
results desired. If they are to be grown for timber, hight 
will be more essential than breadth in the young trees. 



SEEDLINGS OF COl^IEER^. 



63 



and the growth of their lower branches be discouraged, 
and the leading shoots preserved instead ; but if the 
plants are intended for ornamental purposes, or to be set 
out as wind-breaks, screens, or in hedge-rows, low, stocky- 
trees will be preferable, and the growth of the lower 
branches should be encouraged. An occasional cutting- 
in of the terminal shoots of the young trees, and trans- 
planting every two or three years — allowing plenty of room 
for each to spread itself in all directions — will greatly facil- 
itate the production of fine specimens for ornamentation, 
and that will fully meet the requirements of the planter. 

The time at which to give the proper shape or the form 
desired is when transplanting, and with the exception 
perhaps of the pines, it may be done without regard to the 
position of the buds on the stems. The young trees may 
also be pruned at other times, but this will be done 
mainly by pinching off the young succulent shoots in 
summer, shortening those that push out to an unusual 
length, or at points where, if left unchecked, would give 
the tree an unsymmetrical form. 

In removing evergreens from the nursery to forest 
plantations, a little more care is required than in handling 
deciduous trees, because the foliage of the former is always 
present, through which evaporation of the juices of the 
tree takes place to a limited extent, even during what is 
termed the dormant period, and the foliage suffers if the 
roots are long exposed to the light and a dry atmosphere. 
The holes made for the reception of the roots of trans- 
planted trees should always be of sufficient size to admit 
of placing them in a natural extended position, and if 
considerable larger it will be better than to have them in 
the least cramped or crowded, and as a rule the roots 
should not be buried any deeper than they were before 
the tree was transplanted. Of course an inch or two of 
extra depth may be allowed for the usual settling of the 
recently disturbed soil. 



64 



PKACTICAL FORESTRr. 



EYERGREE^TS EROM THE EORESTS. 

Vast numbers of evergreens are annually transplanted 
from the natural seed beds that abound in many parts of 
the country where and when the various species of conifers 
are growing wald. The source of supply is simply inex- 
haustible, limited only by the number of desirable species 
to be obtained. Until recently, gathering natural seed- 
lings of conifers was confined to some of the most common 
species of the Eastern States, such as hemlocks, arbor- 
vitaes, spruces, balsam firs, and pines, but within the 
past few years, the facilities for obtaining rarer kinds has 
been greatly extended, and the coniferae of the Eocky 
Mountain region and the Pacific Coast can now be ob- 
tained very cheaply, and collectors possessing the requi- 
site botanical knowledge are employed to collect seedlings 
of one, two, or more years old, and these are sent to dif- 
ferent points, or wherever there is a demand for them, by 
mail or otherwise. When properly handled, these forest 
seedlings will usually grow and make good specimens. 
To insure success, the seedlings should be pulled when 
the ground is wet, that as many of their roots as possible 
may be retained, and these in no case should be exposed 
to the sun or wind long enough to cause shrivelling. If 
packed in soft moss {Spliagniiin) from low ground, they 
can be safely transported in cool weather to any distance 
not requiring more than six or eight weeks in their 
transit. When such plants arrive at their destination, 
they should be unpacked and placed in a position where 
new growth of roots can be secured without exciting or 
forcing a new growth of the buds or branches. This is 
readily done, because roots will grow at a much lower tem- 
perature than buds, consequently it is only necessary to 
heel-in the seedlings, cr pot them separately if of rare 
kinds and Avorth the trouble, and place them in a half 
shady place, watering freely overhead until the roots 



SEEDLINGS OF COXIFER^. 



65 



commence growth^ then transplant or admit light and 
heat sufficient to insure a healthy growth. My own 
practice — and it has been eminently successful — has been, 
in the case of rare species, to procure them in the fall 
or early winter, and to place each plant in a flower pot of 
the required size, and then plunge them under the cen- 
tral stage of my green-house, or in frames where they 
would not freeze. 

Seedling evergreens gathered in Oregon in November 
and received and potted the last of December, showed 
plenty of new roots by the first of March, while at the 
same time very few gave any signs of growth in their 
tops, beyond a slight swelling of the terminal buds. 
Out of two thousand obtained one autumn, and treated 
as above, the loss did not exceed five per cent. In 
handling seedlings of a foot or more in hight>, the same 
idea as expressed above should be kept in view, and it is 
also well to jDrune away or cut back their leading branches 
before planting out. 

When evergreen seedlings from forests near by are 
taken up in the spring, they should be set near together 
in rows or beds, and then well shaded until root growth 
has commenced, after which the covering may be removed 
entirely or in part. A convenient way to shade such 
plants, is to spread a thin layer of hay over the entire tops 
of the plants, and as showers beat down the hay from 
time to time during the spring and early summer, the 
foliage will be exposed more and more, and finally the 
hay will reach the ground and form a mulch for the plants 
during the rest of the season. Plants set near together, 
with rows eighteen inches or two feet apart, may be pro- 
tected in this manner very effectually and satisfactorily. 

Shading may be done with cloth, boards, or boughs of 
larger evergreens, or in any other way most convenient; 
but shade made in some way is usually necessary to in- 
sure success with forest seedlings. Those obtained from 



66 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



open fields and along the borders of forests where they 
haye been somewhat exposed to light and winds, are 
preferable to those grown in deep forest shade. 

SEASON FOR TRA^^SPLANTIis^G. 

Volumes have been written advancing theories relative 
to the proper season for transplanting evergreen trees and 
shrubs, and while it may be possible to remove them safely 
under favorable conditions at almost any time, it must be 
apparent to every student of vegetable physiology, that 
the proper or best time is when the plant is in its most 
dormant condition. But in cold climates this period is 
so extended, that if the plants are transplanted at the 
beginning of it, they become weakened and often entirely 
deprived of their natural juices, by the evaporation 
through their leaves and twigs before a fresh supply can 
be obtained by the action of their roots upon the soil in 
which they are planted. The mere contact of roots with 
moist soil is not sufficient to enable them to absorb 
nutriment to any considerable extent, but contact through 
growth is necessary to bring their absorbing functions into 
action. It is for this reason that transplanting evergreens 
m cold climates should be done in spring. If transplanted 
early, or so soon as the ground is warm and dry enough 
to work readily, there will usually be time for new roots 
to form, through which sap will be imbibed to support 
new top growth, as in the case of the potted seedlings 
referred to on a preceding page. The principles in both 
cases are identical. The large plant as well as the small 
one needs time to become settled and fixed in its new 
position before the growing season commences; conse- 
quently early planting is always preferable, and if new 
growth of branches has commenced when the roots are 
disturbed, it is very likely to be checked, even if the tree 
does not die. 

If for any cause it becomes necessary to transplant 



PRUisIXG FOKEST TREES. 



67 



evergreens after active growth has commenced, the rapid 
evaporation of moisture from the new shoots may in a 
measure be prevented by giving the tree shade. An old 
cloth, or the branches of other trees set around each one, 
will serve the purpose, and often be the means of saving 
the transplanted trees. Watering overhead is also very 
beneficial, for the same reason, and operates to check 
undue loss of moisture through the foliage and smaller 
branches. Evergreens that have been so frequently 
moved in the nursery that their roots form a solid ball, 
can, of course, be removed safely at almost any season, 
but such trees must be considered as exceptions. In all 
cool climates there are frequent showers during the spring 
months, and with the increasing heat of the sun, and an 
atmosphere laden with moisture, all nature awakes from 
its long slumber in a condition to recuperate, after hav- 
ing been disturbed or checked in its progress; hence it is 
the safest and best season in which to transplant trees of 
all kinds. 



CHAPTER X. 

PEUNING FOREST TREES. 

All kinds of forest trees may be, and nearly all should 
be pruned at the time of transplanting. As it is almost 
if not quite impossible to take up a tree without destroy- 
ing a portion of the roots, or at least disturbing them, 
it is well to reduce the number or length of the branches 
to fully compensate for any loss sustained by the roots. 
It is also better to prune away more wood than is actually 
necessary for the safety of the trees, than to fall short of 
removing enough ; for a few buds and leaves, fully sup- 
plied with nutriment, are worth far more to the tree, 
than a large number kept feeble for the want of it. I am 



68 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



well aware that there are men who object to pruning 
transplanted trees^ because they imagine in their igno- 
rance of the general principles of vegetable physioloo-y, 
that the larger the number of buds and leaves^ the greater 
the capacity of the tree to assimilate sap, which would 
in a measure be true, provided the roots were in a condi- 
tion to supply the crude article in unlimited quantities, 
but as they are not at such time, it is absurd to think 
that the leaves are to be sustained by what they cannot 
possibly obtain. 

AYhile the trees are in nursery rows, they will require 
pruning in order to give them the proper shape when 
wanted for permanent plantations. It is not necessary to 
prune severely, but Just enough to give the grovv'th the 
proper direction. If intended for timber trees, then a 
tall straight stem is required, and when there is more 
than one leading shoot, they should be cut away. The 
lower branches may be removed from time to time, always 
leaving enough to form a good head to the tree, and in 
cutting off branches, they should be severed close, leav- 
ing no rough stump to decay, or to throw out sprouts. 
If the young trees are properly pruned in the nursery, 
there will be no necessity of removing large branches 
when they become old. Some species will require but 
little pruning, while others demand considerable, else 
they make slow progress in the way of making handsome 
shapely specimens. Pruning should not be practised 
to such an extent that the tree is weakened by the ojoera- 
tion, but it should never be neglected when anything can 
be gained in promoting the growth of any part of the 
tree, or in any direction that will tend to increase its 
value, or fit it for the purpose for which it is raised. By 
cutting off a portion of the lower branches, we allow 
more sap to flow past, and into those higher up on the 
stem, and we repeat the operation annually, or -as often 
as necessary to encourage an upward growth if tall trees 



PRUOTISra FOREST TREES. 



69 



are our object^ instead of low and yery stocky ones. 
Trees growing in an open field and left to themselves^ will 
usually liaye branches sufficient to shade their stems. 
This appears to be not only natural^ but beneficial, for 
when the stem is fully exposed to the sun^ the bark be- 
comes dry and hot^ and the flow of sap is retarded in its 
movements. It is only, however^ while the trees are 
young and the bark thin, that any particular injury will 
be perceived. 

When the trees are raised in nurseries, the stems are 
partially shaded ; consequently the lower branches are 
not required for shade, but only to assist growth until a 
sufficient number of others have been produced, and then 
their service may be dispensed with without injury to 
the tree. 

Trees standing singly and alone where they have room 
for full development, should have at least two-thirds of 
tlieir hight occupied with branches, but where grown in 
forests for timber, the rule may be reversed, although we 
may vary the proportion of occupied and naked stem, ac- 
cording to the natural habit of the tree. The pruning 
of forest trees should not cease with their final planting 
in the position in which they are to remain, because an 
occasional lopping off of a branch here and there, removal 
of sprouts from near their base, or suckers springing 
from roots, may assist greatly in keeping them in good 
shape, and prevent the growth of parts not desired. 
Stunted, distorted specimens, may often be entirely ren- 
ovated, as it were, by judicious pruning. 

TIME TO PRUNE. 

This is a subject which has been frequently discussed 
among arboriculturists, and all who cultivate trees of 
any kind, but all will agree that it should never be done 
at a time when the sap will flow from the wound, as this ^ 
not only causes a loss to the tree, but the slowly oozing 



70 



PRACT1CAI> FOEESTKY. 



sap has a corrosiye action on both the exposed ^ound, 
and siirroundins: bark, often hastenins^ deeav. This is 
especially true with trees like the maple^ butternut^ and 
birch, which bleed (as it is termed), if wounded at any 
time during the latter part of winter or early spring. 
The oozing sap also attracts certain insects^ especially 
those that infest dying or dead wood. In my own exper- 
ience I have never found any better time to prune than in 
summer, as soon as the trees are in full leaf^ and the 
trees have commenced to make a new growth. The 
wounds made at this time will commence to heal over 
immediately, and where small branches are removed on 
rapidly growing trees, the wounds will usually be entirely 
covered with new wood by the end of the season^ and 
where larger branches are cut off . the exposed Vv'ood will 
become well seasoned, and so hardened during- the warm 
weather, that it will seldom commence to decay before it 
is entirely overgrown. The next best season is in the 
fall after the wood is ripe^ for in cool climates the ex- 
posed wood v>'ill become dry. and hardened before the sap 
commences to flow in spring. 

The conifers and other evercrreens will submit to the 
knife and the pruning saw. as well as deciduous trees, 
and when raised for timber, will need pruning as often, 
and in about the same manner. When raised for orna- 
mental purposes, the pruning will be mainly for the pur- 
pose of giving them the required form, although thin- 
ning out, and shortening the branches at the time of 
transplanting, is as beneficial as it is with deciduous 
trees, but it it is not so generally practised. Evergreens 
may be headed back or trimmed up in order to make 
them grow tall and slender, or broad and stocky. With 
the natural conical sliaped evergTcens, like the spruces 
and balsams, many persons dislike to cut out the leading 



PRUKIKG FOKEST TREES. 



71 



shoots, for fear of destroying the natural symmetry of the 
tree, and while it may have this effect for a short time, 
a new leader is certain to come in and take the place of 
the one removed, but during the time intervening, the 
lateral branches will spread out more vigorously, giving 
to the tree a more stocky appearance. In pruning the 
coarser growing pines, a little more care is required than 
with arbor- vitae, spruces, and other closely allied trees, 
for the reason that buds are not usually produced on the 
internodes between the nodes or joints, and when a lead- 
ing shoot, either the terminal one on the main stem, or 
branches, is removed, it should 
be cut out close down to the 
junction of the next tier of 
branches below, leaving no bar- 
ren stump to die and decay. A 
glance at a pine tree will be 
enough for even a novice in 
such matters, to see how it 
should be pruned, in order to 
make it grow more compact 
and stocky, if such a change 
is desired. 

IMPLEMENTS USED I^T PRUKIi^^G. 

The common pruning knife 
is the best implement for 
pruning small trees, but in re- 
moving large branches, a fine- ^^S- 24.-A handy ladder. 
tooth saw should be used in preference to an axe. If 
the wounds made are so large that they will not soon be 
covered with a new growth, it is well to apply some kind 
of wax, paint or some other substance, to exclude water 
and prevent decay. Various compositions are used for 
this purpose, and on small trees where the exposed wood 
can be readily reached, a little melted grafting-wax, ap- 




73 



PRACTICAL FORESTEY. 



plied with a brushy will be found an excellent preserva- 
tive, but on large trees where there is considerable sur- 
face to be covered, almost any good mineral paint mixed 
with linseed oil will answer every purpose. A handy and 
cheap ladder for forest-tree pruning is shown in figure 24. 



CHAPTER XL 
THE BEST TIME TO CUT TIMBER. 

li we were to take the opinions of men, practical and 
otherwise, as our guide in selecting a time for cutting 
timber we should never reach a conclusion in the matter, 
for there is not a month in the twelve, that has not been 
recommended as the very best time for felling trees in 
order that the wood should remain sound, firm, and 
durable. There is, no doubt, some foundation for this 
great variation in the opinion of even those who have 
had much practical experience in handling and working 
of timber, and it is probably largely due to the fact that 
m many instances, and for many purposes, no difference 
is observable in the appearance or quality of timber 
whether cut in winter or summer. 

Much depends upon the treatment timber receives 
after it is cut, whether placed in a position to season 
rapidly, or left in the woods where seasoning will go on 
slowly ; furthermore, climate — the prevalence of insects 
that attack felled trees — the kinds of timber, and various 
other conditions and circumstances has much influence 
on the durability and quality of wood of the same species 
of trees. It is certainly true that there is a great differ- 
ence in the amount of, and condition of the moisture in 
trees at different seasons of the year, and while as a mat- 
ter of convenience it will often be of more importance 



THE BEST TIME TO CUT TIMBER. 



73 



to the one cutting timber than any slight variation in 
quality that may follow, still there is no doubt a choice 
in time for felling trees for all purposes. In late fall 
and winter, when trees are in a dormant state, the Avood 
contains less liquids than in spring and summer, and 
this is without doubt an advantage, for there is not only 
less to be driven off in seasoning, but less to produce 
chemical changes which are often more or less injurious 
to both strength and durability. 

From my own experience and all the facts that I have 
been able to gather from lumbermen and dealers in 
timber, I have come to the conclusion that the winter is 
not only preferable but the most convenient season for 
cutting timber, whether to be converted into sawed 
timber or be used for posts, rails, railroad ties, or other 
purposes wiiere toughness and durability are an object. 
But in. case of small timber for posts and stakes from 
which the bark is to be stripped, then we may delay the 
cutting until the latter part of the winter, or until the 
sap commences to liquify, which will facilitate the re- 
moval of the bark. All stakes and posts which are to be 
set in the ground should have the bark removed, certainly 
on that portion which is placed in the ground. 

If we bear in mind the fact, that it is only the outer 
portion of the tree — the sap wood, leaves, buds, and 
inner layers of the bark — which are alive and contain 
true sap, all other portions being dead, and only serve 
as a covering, or like the heart wood, help to sustain the 
tree in its position, we can readily see why it will make 
no material difference in the lasting properties of timber 
whether it is cut in summer or winter, provided the 
green portion is soon deprived of its moisture, so that 
insects will not find a lodgment for their eggs or decay 
be accelerated by its presence. 

For such purposes as hoop poles, the bark must be 
retained as it is generally considered essential, and in 
4 



74 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



this case the young trees should be cut at a season whe] 
the bark will adhere the most firmly, that is late fall o: 
early winter, although they may be cut in summer, be^ 
cause the hickories usually finish their growth quite earlj 
in the season, but the wood is likely to be more brittk 
if the poles are cut early or when in full leaf than later. 

Coniferae trees from which it is desirable to strip the 
bark should be cut during the growing season in early 
summer, and if rapid seasoning is desired without re-j 
moyal of bark, the trees should be merely felled and' 
allowed to remain with all their branches attached until l 
the leaves fall off. 

We may haye other objects in yiew besides the yalue 
of the timber taken, such as a second growth to be pro- 
duced from the stumps, when this is desired the trees 
should be felled at a season most favorable to the roots. \ 
If the trees are cut late in the fall or winter, the roots and 
stumps will throw up sprouts far more readily than if 
the trees were cut in summer when growing the most 
rapidly. In fact, late summer is the proper time to cut 
trees and shrubs if we desire to kill the roots. It would not 
be possible to name the exact time best for the purpose, 
because not only do seasons vary but the right time in 
New York State would be too late for Virginia and those 
further South, neither is the same time best in all years. 
I have seen acres of willows killed out completely by a 
single cutting of their tops, and the next season another 
lot was cut off during the same days of the same month, 
the roots of which were but little injured and threw up 
sprouts in great abundance the following season. The 
weather at the time of cutting the willows, no doubt, 
had some influence in producing the difference in the 
results noted. 

In ancient times, and, in fact, in modern, many per- 
sons have believed the moon has some mysterious influ- 
ence upon ihe growth of animals and plants inhabiting 



IMPORTANCE OF A SUPPLY OF WOOD. 



75 



this earth, such insist that trees should always be cut 
during certain phases of the pale orb of night/^ but for 
some reason they fail to agree in this matter, some in- 
sisting on the wane, others the new, etc., but such super- 
stitions have long since become obsolete among men who 
know anything of natural history in any of its yarious 
branches. 



CHAPTER XII. 
IMPORTANCE OF A SUPPLY OF WOOD. 

No one who is at all familiar with forests and their 
products, neods to be reminded of the imj)ortance of 
having at hand an abundance of wood of various kinds, 
or how much it contributes to the general welfare and 
happiness of a nation. But there are those who have 
not paid much attention to this subject who claim, and 
no doubt honestly believe that the great progress made 
of late years in the use of iron in place of wood in build- 
ing houses, bridges, piers, ships, and other structures, 
are but indications of what is to follow, and that in a. 
few years there will be no great demand for wood in any 
form. 

The building of railroads, which reach almost every 
part of the country, has aided in the distribution of 
coal, and made this in a great measure a more convenient 
and in many instances a cheaper fuel than wood, but in 
building these roads a vast quantity of wood has been 
used, and of the best kinds, not only for ties, of which 
nearly or quite three thousand are put down per mile, 
but on many of the roads wood is still used for fuel. 
There is now nearly or quite one hundred thousand miles 
of railroads in the United States, and we have only to 



76 



PRACTICAL FOKESTRY. 



multiply this by three thousand, to ascertain that three 
hundred millions of ties have been used in their con- 
struction, leaving out of account the thousands of I 
wooden bridges and other structures, in the building of 
which more or less wood has been consumed. The rail- 
roads may have assisted very materially in checking the 
consumption of wood for fuel, but they haye probably 
more than balanced the account in the amount used in 
their construction, besides the three hundred million of 
ties must be duplicated every ten years, for the average 
life of a railroad tie will scarcely exceed a decade, and 
with nearly all kinds except the best oak, it is a year or 
two less. 

The demand for railroad ties is not likely to decrease, 
but increase, although as timber becomes scarce and 
prices advance, preserving processes will doubtless be 
employed to prevent rapid decay. Stone, brick, and 
iron will also come into more general use for buildings, 
but the increase in population vv^ill also tend to an increase 
in the demand for other purposes besides that of buildings. 

It is only a little more than a century since coke was 
first employed for smelting iron ores. The introduction 
of this fuel to take the place of charcoal, it was thought 
would save the forests of the world from destruction by 
the charcoal burners, and while it has done much to- 
wards making it possible to produce sufficient iron to 
meet the great and constantly increasing demand, it has 
not superseded charcoal, and there is probably more 
charcoal used to-day than at the time coke was first em- 
ployed in a smelting furnace. Charcoal is still used in 
furnaces and forges, and there are several establishments 
in this country that use annually over a million of bushels 
each, and a score of others that consume from twenty to 
twenty-five hundred thousand bushels. 

Notwithstanding the number of substitutes that are 
employed, the demand and consumption of wood appear^ 



IMPORTAl!TCE OF A SUPPLY OF WOOD. 77 

to increase^ and to-day there is probably more wood used 
in making boxes of various kinds than there was in the 
construction of buildings of all kinds in this country 
three-quarters of a century ago. Furthermore^ no kind 
or quality of timber appears to escape the unsatiate de- 
mand of the artisan of the period, and he not only finds 
ready uses for the large and small, the hardest, toughest, 
and most durable, but also for the soft and spongy, the 
latter being preferred for grinding up into wood-pulp for 
making paper. 

'Not a year passes during which scores of new devices 
and inventions of new articles of manufacture, are not 
brought forward, that are made in part or wholly of 
wood, and while singly they may not call for a great 
quantity, they do in the aggregate use up an enormous 
amount. 

The invention of a pleasing toy for children has fre- 
quently caused the demolishing of hundreds of acres of 
forests, to supply the manufacture with wood used in its 
construction. It is idle to talk of our natural forests 
furnishing a supply of wood for the future use of our 
people, even with the most careful management and 
economy in preventing waste, there must soon come a 
time of great scarcity of all kinds of wood. With an 
increase in population, there must necessarily follow a 
corresponding increased demand, because experience has 
shown, that whenever any other material has been sub- 
stituted for wood, it merely releases a certain amount, 
and allows it to seek other channels or markets. JSTo 
matter in what direction we turn, the fact meets us, that 
the best and most valuable forests of the United States 
are rapidly disappearing, and the sooner we commence 
as a nation to economize in the use of wood of all kinds, 
and preserve the forests now existing, as well as com- 
mence planting new ones, the better it will be for the 
present as well as future generation. 



78 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



It is not necessary to select the best and most fertile 
land upon which to raise trees^ for any that is rich 
enough to give the plants a good start in life will answer, 
because the annual dressing of leaves that the soil re- 
ceiyes will be sufl&cient to keep the trees growing. There 
are doubtless many situations, where a single tree would 
not thrive, as on a prairie, a bleak hillside, or other ex- 
posed positions, where by planting a number together 
they would mutually protect each other, and will usually 
take care of themselves. We have millions of acres of 
barren, naked, sandy, rocky, and otherwise unproductive 
lands, that might readily be covered with valuable forests. 
Large plantations of forest trees have been established in 
Europe, and there is no good reason why the same should 
not be done in America. 



CHAPTEE XIII. 
PRESERVATION OF FORESTS. 

In the first settlement of our Atlantic Coast there was 
an actual necessity for clearing off the forests, in order to 
obtain land for cultivation, and while at this day the 
greater part of our arable lands has been cleared, there is 
still quite large areas well adapted to cultivation and await- 
ing the husbandman. But there are still larger areas 
of hills and mountains that are not, and probably never 
will be worth clearing for any agricultural use, and as 
such lands are to a large extent still covered v/ith forests, 
it is not too late to attempt their preservation. These 
wood-lands have, it is true, been overrun more or less 
and the best timber removed, but this has not to any 
great extent affected their value in the way of influence 
on the climate of the surrounding country, and as sources 
of water supply to feed our brooks and rivers. 

The Adirondack region o.f the northern part of the 



PRESERVATION^' OF FORESTS. 



79 



State of New York is oue to which public attention has 
been called of late^ and while the importance of preserv- 
ing the forests over this entire region of country can 
scarcely be questioned, it is at the same time only one of 
many similar areas that should become public domain 
and the forests covering them remain inviolate for all 
time. There is scarcely a brook or river, from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific Ocean, that does not flow from some forest- 
covered hill or mountain, and this in itself is enough to 
warrant the withdrawing of all such land from market, 
whether owned by the different States or the General 
Government. There are large areas covered by forests 
throughout the entire Alleghany .range of mountain, 
from Pennsylvania to Georgia, also in the Blue Eidge and 
the Cumberland Mountains, all of which should be pre- 
served as public domain, instead of being disposed of by 
the different States in which they are located for a few 
cents an acre, as has been done in thousands of instances. 

Similar areas of wood-lands, but less in extent, may be 
met with in the same latitude, until we reach the Pacific 
slope. But the best and most valuable timber in all of 
these forests is being removed at a rapid rate, and if it 
is to be preserved, no time should be wasted by the dif- 
ferent States in which they are situated, or the General 
Government, in taking possession of them. 

Laws may have to be enacted looking toward the con- 
trol and general management of these forests, and schools 
of forestry established, where young men may obtain the 
information required to fit them for the position of 
foresters, but these are trifling matters in comparison 
with the more important one of securing and establish- 
ing State and National forests. 

MAKAGEMEKT OF FORESTS. 

I have no doubt that many persons Avill object to this 
proposition of passing over large areas of forests to the 



80 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



control of the States or General Government, on account 
of the expense likely to be incurred in their purchase and 
management. But it is not at all probable that these 
forests will become a burden to the people; but on the 
contrary, if properly managed, may be self-supporting, 
if nothing more. With proper management there should 
be an income from the sale of timber of various kinds, 
for when a tree has reached maturity, it ought to be 
removed, else a decrease in value will ensue. Skillful 
foresters will not only remove and dispose of valuable 
timber at the proper time, but be constantly planting 
trees in all available grounds throughout the forests 
under their care. The inferior kinds will be removed to 
give room for the superior, and in this way the forests 
may be improved and their intrinsic value enhanced very 
materially from year to year. 

What kinds should be destroyed as well as planted, 
depends so much upon soil, situation, climate, and local 
demand, that no general rules can be given for such 
operations, but must be left to the good judgment of the 
forester himself, or his counsellors. They will also be 
best able to decide whether it is better to plant young 
trees or sow seeds, where a new growth of wood is desired. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

ESTABLISHING NEW FORESTS. 

In the great treeless regions of the West — forests must 
be raised if any are ever to adorn that part of our country, 
but there are extensive areas on which it wall be ex- 
tremely difficult to make trees of any kind grow without 
irrigation, and to do this some heretofore undiscovered 
source from which a supply of water can be obtained 



ESTABLISHING KEW FORESTS. 



81 



must be brought to light. But we may well leave the 
higher and drier regions west of the one hundredth 
meridian, for future generations to experiment upon, for 
the present has enough to do in raising forests on more 
congenial soils. There are limited areas where both 
soil and climate are so well adapted to the growth of 
trees that forests can be started by merely scattering the 
seed over the ground, and leaving them to sprout and 
grow without further care or attention, but while this 
system may answer for such kinds as locust, maples, and 
elms, and on soils quite free from rank growing grasses 
and weeds, other kinds would fail unless covered with 
earth, or at least shaded until they had produced roots 
and become fixed to the soil. When trees are started in 
this way there can be no uniformity in their distribution, 
and while some will be crowded others will have more 
room than is necessary ; consequently, if anything like 
system or regularity is to be secured, there will need to 
be more or less thining out and transplanting done, and 
this will cost nearly or quite as much as it would to have 
sown the seed in nursery rows and then transplanted the 
seedlings when of proper size and age. Sowing forest 
tree seeds on unbroken soils on the banks of rivers and 
smaller streams, or in forests where the trees are very 
scattering, has often been practised with excellent results, 
and is to be recommended for those who cannot afford to 
adopt a more advanced system of tree culture. Such 
half-wild plantations will also furnish trees for trans- 
planting to other locations if they are needed, but the 
usual system of raising seedlings in beds or nursery rows, 
will, as a rule, give the best and most satisfactory results. 

The first thought of the pioneer in a forest covered 
region is to clear off the trees — let in air and sunlight in 
order that the earth may be warmed, dried, and fitted 
for cultivation and production of such crops as are re- 
quired for the maintenance of man and his domesticated 



82 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



animals. His crops also need to be stirred by gentle 
breezes to keep them in health and insure yigorous 
growth^ for a stagnant atmosphere is no more to be 
desired than stagnant pools of water, but unfortunately, 
man in his anxiety to secure a large area of land for 
cultivation, allows his greed of gain to get the better of 
his judgment, and the onslaught on the forests continues 
until there is no shade or protection from the hot rays of ^ 
the sun that parch and dry up his fields, and instead of 
opening the way to gentle life-giving breezes, he has 
admitted the fierce winds and tornadoes. On the con- 
trary the pioneers on the plains and prairies, need, not 
only protection from the fierce rays of the sun in summer, 
but against the winds vfhich sweep over those regions 
with a violence and frequency only known to those who 
have encountered them at all seasons and in all kinds of 
weather. 

How to begin in order to get trees growing in such 
numbers as will afford shelter and protection, is what 
most interests those who have resolved to make them- 
selves a home on the prairie. They are not, as a rule, 
very particular as to the kind planted, because a tree of 
any species is so much gain, and a thing to be admired, 
appreciated, and tenderly cared for. Admitting that 
every tree raised is a gain, and a step towards securing 
what is so generally sought by those residing in sparsely 
wooded regions, it may be well, at the same time, to take 
into consideration in advance of planting, not only the 
present, but also the future value of the kinds to be 
employed in forming screens, wind-breaks, or- even more 
extensive plantations. The poplars and willows have 
been most extensively planted, probably, because they 
could be easily obtained and readily propagated by 
cuttings. They also grow rapidly even under what may 
be termed unfavorable conditions, but the wood is very 
inferior, and while it is better than none, it does not 



ESTABLISHII^G KEW FORESTS. 



83 



answer the same purpose as that of many superior kinds 
that can be readily produced in the same region of 
country, and under the same natural conditions. Some of 
.the species of poplar known as the cotton-woods have 
been extensiyely planted in the States west of the Missis- 
sippi, and while the trees grow rapidly in hight, they 
do not spread out and assume a sturdy, stocky habit, 
such as is needed to effectually resist the force of prevail- 
ing winds. If planted thinly and each tree given 
abundant room with an occasional cutting back of the 
leading shoots, they would serve the purpose better, but 
as I haye seen them planted in hundreds of instances, 
with no thinning out or heading back, the plantation in 
a few years had more the appearance of a collection of 
hop-poles than anything else, and usually they lean over 
to the east, or south-east, at such an acute angle that 
there is no mistaking the point of compass from which 
the wind blows most persistently if not continuously in 
those regions. 

While the poplars and willows have, no doubt, served 
a good purpose, and may still be employed for screens 
and timber belts to a limited extent, they ought never to 
be recommended for anything more than temporary 
plantations, or to foster-better kinds. There can be no 
reasonable excuse in these days for planting inferior 
kinds of trees, because it costs really no more to raise 
the best from seed — dig up from the woods, or procured 
from the nurseries — than it does to handle or purchase 
the poorest. In all cases I would advise planting young- 
trees or cuttings in ground that had been broken up at 
least one year before being used, and the planting in all 
cold climates should be done in spring. The more care- 
fully the ground is prepared for the reception of the 
plants the better, and the strongest and most hardy 
should be placed in such a position that they will protect 
the weaker and tenderer kinds. Each species of tree, as 



84 



PKACTICAL FOKESTRY. 



a rule^ should be kept separate and not intermingled as 
they are often found in a state of nature. Of course 
many kinds and varieties may be employed in forming 
belts^ groups, or forests, and still each be placed in 
separate rows, squares, or clumps, but this system may 
be varied in case some small and less vigorous species are 
needed to fill in among the larger ones in order to give 
compactness to a plantation intended mainly as a screen 
or wind-break. 

The object in keeping each species separate is to avoid 
giving any one an advantage over its neighbor, which is 
certain to follow intermingling of different species. It 
may answer in some cases to intermingle several different 
species of the oak, maple, and similar trees, still, we 
seldom find that the different species of oak or maple, do 
equally well on the same kind of soil, and for this reason 
it is best to keep them separate in our cultivated planta- 
tions, in order that we may the more readily determine 
which is best adapted to the soil and climate. Evergreen 
trees are superior to deciduous for screens and wind- 
breaks, but more difficult to raise on the prairies because 
of the exposure of their leaves to drying cold winds in 
winter. But by selecting those species that are indig- 
enous to similar soils and climates, and then by giving 
protection in winter until the trees become well estab- 
lished, I am inclined to believe that a very fair variety of 
evergreen trees may be made to thrive in almost any 
locality where deciduous trees will grow. It will not be 
necessary to obtain trees from extreme northern latitudes 
in order to find species that will succeed in Minnesota, 
Nebraska, or further South or West, because it is not so 
much the low temperature that destroys them, as it is 
exposure to cold drying winds. For instance, in my 
grounds I have three large American hollies planted 
some fifteen years ago, one of these trees is protected on 
the north-west side by a small clump of American arbor- 



ESTABLISHING KEW FORESTS. 



85 



yitaes, and it has never been injured in the least by cold^ 
and is every winter loaded with its bright^ scarlet berries. 
The two other trees, not more than a hundred feet dis- 
tant, but unprotected, are frequently badly injured and 
occasionally lose all the leaves from the north side. Now 
the injury to the two unprotected specimens cannot be 
attributed to the difference in temperature, for if a ther- 
mometer was hung up in each they would not show a 
difference in temperature of a single degree even in tlie 
coldest weather. It is the cutting wind that kills, and 
not the severe cold. Evergreens that are indigenous 
to cold, moist climates, will not thrive in cold, dry ones, 
neither in those that are moist and warm.. Our northern 
species, like the hemlock, white spruce, white pine, and 
arbor-vitas, will not grow in the Southen States, except 
on some mountain range w^here the temperature is not 
excessive in summer. There are, however, a good variety 
of evergreens indigenous to the Southern States, and 
adapted to all kinds of soil from the dry sand hills where 
the long-leaved or yellow pine flourishes, to the low 
swamps filled with white cedars, evergreens, oaks, yews, 
and magnolias. But in seeking evergreen trees for culti- 
vation on the western prairies, it will be well to obtain 
species inhabiting similar parallels of latitude, and those 
known to resist high winds and long drouths. Such 
species can be found in both the Eastern as well as the 
Western States. 

Among the pines, those with coarse rigid leaves are 
less liable to be affected by strong winds than the more 
soft and tender-leaved. The common Pitch pine 
(P. rigida), and the Jersey pine (P. imps), as well as 
the Table Mountain pine (P. pu7igens), and Red pine 
(P. resinosa), are species well adapted for planting in 
exposed situations. There are also several species, natives 
of the foot-hills and mountains, bordering the great 
plains on the west that will eventually prove to be more 



86 



PKACTICAL FORESTKY. 



yaluable for planting on the prairies than any of our 
Eastern species, and among them I would recommend 
the Heavy- wooded pine (P. po7iderosa), because it seems 
to be almost indifferent as to soil and location, and I 
have seen it growing luxuriantly in the most exposed 
situations in the mountains, among rocks v/here there 
was little or no soil — in the hardest clay as well as in 
loose beds of gravel, and this too in regions where thirty 
degrees below zero in winter is not an uncommon tem- 
perature. I refer to this pine as one likely to succeed 
under the most adverse conditions, but there are other 
native species probably more desirable an account of 
appearance as well as quality of timber, but we are 
now seeking trees that will resist winds, drouths, and 
give the pioneer on the prairie something to cling to, 
after which the more beautiful and useful among trees 
may receive attention. 

There are also several other species of pines, spruces, 
and a red cedar, found in the same regions along with the 
Heavy-wooded pine, all of which are worth trying as they 
may succeed perfectly, but in all cases I would advise 
obtaining seeds or plants from the higher and colder 
parts of the mountain for planting on the prairies, be- 
cause those from the warmer and moist valleys would 
suffer more from the change than those from drier and 
more exposed positions. There are also several foreign 
species of pines and other cone-bearing trees that would 
probably succeed as well, or nearly so, on the prairies as 
those I have named, but of these I shall have more to 
say hereafter. 

Those who are about beginning to establish forests, or 
even limited plantations, should carefully consider the 
adaptation of trees, not only to climate but soil, for some 
species succeed only in moist or wet soils, others in dry, 
while a few may appear to do equally well in both. 
Then again certain species only thrive on sand stone forma- 



FOREST TREES. 



87 



tions^ or where slate or granites predominate^ and utterly 
fail on limestone^ or wliat are termed rich limestone soils, 
which some claim to be the case with the chestnut. Some 
trees appear to require opposition or resistance to root 
growth in order to keep them healthy, and these kinds do 
best in stiff clay or on soils filled with loose rocks and 
similar obstructions. We can usually make a very close 
guess as to what kind of soil is best adapted to a species 
if we know the character of that in which it is naturally 
found most abundant, and for this reason we would not 
select a clayey soil for the white pine, or a light sandy 
one for the elm, hickory, or maple. Then again we 
would much prefer a swamp for the red maple, and a 
hard, dry and moderately dry soil for the sugar maple. 
I throw out these hints in order that those who may have 
occasion to make selections from the trees described in 
the following pages, will not overlook whatever I rnay 
have to say in regard to their native habitats. 



CHAPTEK XV. 

FOREST TREES. 

I propose in the following pages to mention all trees 
indigenous to the United States, so far as known to 
botanists, also the best known of the exotic species that 
have been introduced and cultivated to any considerable 
extent for ornamental or other purposes, but as the 
limits of this work will not admit of a full botanical de- 
scription of all the species and varieties, I shall only refer to 
some of the most conspicuous and familiar characteristics 
of each, and in language that I hope can be understood 
by those who are not accustomed to the use of purely 
scientific terms. Those who may desire a full scientific 



PRACTICAL FORESTEY. 



description of the trees mentioned in these pages, can 
find it in various botanical works published in this 
country and Europe. 

Shrubs that seldom reach the higlit of twenty feet are 
omitted, except in some instances where they belong to 
a genera containing trees of larger growth, and in such 
instances they will be mentioned briefly. I haye ar- 
ranged the list of trees alphabetically according to their 
generic name, and while this is not in accordance with 
the botanical classification, it will be found just as con- 
venient for all practical purposes. I make only two 
classes, the first comprises the deciduous trees and broad- 
leaved evergreens which are principally indigenous to 
the Southern States, and the second the conifers or 
cone-bearing trees, the greater part being evergreens. 
There are a few like the Larches, Taxodiums, and Salis- 
burias that are deciduous trees, but they belong among 
the true conifers. 

ACACIA GREGGii, Gray. 

A small tree, but sometimes over twenty feet high. Leaves 
small, short, composed of two or three pairs of pinnae an inch 
long, and leaflets of four or five pairs, oblong or oblong-ovate. 
Flowers in cylindical spikes an inch or two long, succeeded by 
curved pods three or four inches long. Seed about a half inch 
long. Branches either naked or armed with stout-hooked 
prickles. Wood firm and hard, but usually too small to be of 
much value. Native of Texas and westward to Southern Cal- 
ifornia. There are quite a number of the species of the 
Acacia that have been introduced from tropical countries, and 
are now naturalized in the Southern States, also a much larger 
number that are cultivated as green- house plants. 

ACER. — Maple, 

An extensive genus, containing some fifty species, mostly of 
the northern hemisphere, and pretty evenly distributed through 
the northern border of the temperate zone in America, Europe, 
Asia, and Japan. There are nine or ten species, natives of the 
United States, more than half of which are valuable timber 



FOREST TREES. 



89 



trees. Our native species have palmated-lobed leaves, with edges 
variously toothed or notched. Flowers small in terminal ra- 
cemes or umbel-like corymbs. 

Acer Saceharinum. — Sugar Maple, Eock Maple, Hard Maple. — 
Leaves three to five-lobed, deep green above, and paler beneath. 
Flowers greenish-yellow, appearing with leaves in spring. 
Wings of seed quite broad, seed ripe in autumn. A well-known 
tree of rapid growth, possessing many valuable qualities, one of 
which is its sweet sap, from which large quantities of sugar are 
made in regions where the tree is abundant. The wood is 
hard, close grained, and susceptible of a fine polish, and exten- 
sively use for hard- wood floors and inside finishing of houses, 
also, for cabinet work, especially what are termed Bird's- 
eye" and Curled Maple. Hard maple makes an excellent fuel, 
and is highly valued for this purpose. A rapid growing tree 
often reaching a hight of eighty to ninety feet, with a stem 
three to four feet in diameter. Most common in the North, 
from Maine to Minnesota, and also southward to Georgia in the 
mountains. Succeeds best in rather strong, loamy soils, ap- 
proaching a stiff clay, and on stony hill-sides and ridges where 
the soil is moist, but not wet and swampy. A variety of the 
Sugar Maple found in some of our Northern woods called the 
Black Maple, has darker green leaves which appear a few 
days later in the spring than this species. The Sugar Maple 
has long been a favorite for planting in the streets of our cities 
and villages, also as a roadside tree in the country. It is well 
worthy of all the attention it has received, and should be more 
extensively planted wherever forest trees of any kind are 
needed. It is so abundant in the Northern woods that seedlings 
of almost any convenient size for transplanting can be obtained 
in unlimited quantities, and at a mere nominal price of those 
who make a business of gathering them for sale. 

A. dasycarpum. — White Maple, Silver Maple. — Leaves deeply 
five-lobed, silvery white underneath ; pale green above, lobes 
coarsely cut and toothed. Flowers greenish yellow or reddish 
without petals, appearing in early spring, succeeded by the 
corymbs of winged seed, which are ripe about the time the 
leaves are of full size. The seeds soon drop off, and where 
they fall on moist soil in the shade they soon grow. They are 
very delicate, however, and cannot be kept for many weeks 
after they are ripe, but if sown immediatedly and in good soil 
they will produce plants two feet or more in hight the first 



90 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



season. This is one of the most rapid growing of all our 
maples, and succeeds in a great variety of soils, but is best 
adapted to a rich, moist one. Its wood is white, fine grained, 
and rather light and soft, but takes a fair polish, and is much 
used for purposes where a very hard surface is not required. The 
sap is sweet, and sugar can be made from it, but is much 
inferior to that of the Sugar Maple. Occasionally a tree yields 
the accidental form known as Curled and Bird's-eye Maple. 
This species of maple has been raised in large quantities by 
Eastern nurserymen, and sold for planting in streets and parks, 
for its rapid growth and adaptation to almost all kinds of soil 
and situation, has made it a general favorite with those who 
desire to secure shade trees with as little delay as possible. The 
tree in favorable soils often reaches a hight of eighty feet or 
more, with stem three or four feet in diameter. I have raised 
trees from seed that were ten feet high at the close of the fourth 
season, and in twenty-five years, more than forty feet high, 
with stems eighteen inches in diameter at the base, and this too, 
in rather light and only moderately rich soil. The White 
Maple is more abundant west than east of the Alleghany 
Mountains, although it is found sparingly in Northern Ver- 
mont, and thence westward to Minnesota, and southward to 
Florida. When planted singly it forms a large spreading top, 
the outer branches often becoming somewhat pendulous or 
drooping. While we have many better timber trees than this 
species of maple, still its rapid growth and adataption to such a 
great variety of soils, and wide range of climate, gives it a 
value possessed by no other species, and it deserves more at- 
tention than it has ever received from those who are in haste 
to obtain shelter and good fuel in a few years, and with little 
expense. The branches are abundant and flexible, a merit of no 
small moment with trees to be employed as wind-breaks in prairie 
regions of country. There are several ornamental varieties of 
this species cultivated in nurseries, among which the following 
are desirable as lawn trees, or for planting in parks, and other 
pleasure grounds : Crisp-leaved {A. dasycarpum^ var. crispum); 
leaves deeply cut and much curled ; more or less upright. 
Wagner's Cut-leaved {A, d. Wagnerii laciniatiim), a handsome 
variety with divided or cut leaves. Weir's Cut-leaved {A, d, 
Weirii laciniatum), a very graceful tree usually of weeping habit, 
but in some specimens the branches assume a wide, spreading 
habit, and droop but slightly or not at all. Varieties of the 



FOEEST TREES. 



91 



White Maple may be readily propagated by budding or graft- 
ing upon seedling stocks of the species. 

A. rubrum. — Red Maple, Scarlet Maple, Swamp Maple. — Leaves 
usually three-lobed, as shown in fig. 25, but sometimes five, the 
middle one the longest, all irregularly serrate. Flowers crim- 
son-scarlet, and sometimes yellowish, appearing early in spring, 
succeeded by smooth seeds with spreading wings, about an inch 
long. Seeds ripen early, or by the time the leaves have fully 
expanded, and then drop 
off and soon decay, unless 
placed in a favorable posi- 
tion for growth. Wood 
white, or slightly tinted 
with red, close-grained, 
and moderately fine ; a 
little heavier than that of 
the White Maple, and more 
extensively employed for 
cabinet-making and vari- 
ous articles of wooden 
ware. Valuable for fuel, 
but not equal to the Sugar 
Maple. This species also 
furnishes Curled and 
Bird's-eye Maple for cabi- 
net work. A very large 
tree, and common in near- 
ly all swamps in the East- 
ern States, and sparingly 
in the Western, also oc- 
casionally found as far 
south as Florida. When 
planted singly, it forms 
a handsome round-headed tree, not as open and spreading as 
the Silver Maple, neither is it of as rapid growth, but with age 
it reaches fully as large a size. Although naturally found in 
swamps, the Red Maple will thrive in moderately dry soils, and 
is often planted along roadsides, in preference to other species, 
on account of its brilliant-colored flowers in spring, and the 
various colors of the foliage in autumn. The coloring of the 
leaves of this species is a puzzle to the scientific naturalist, 
for there appears to be no accounting for the many colors, or 




Fig. 25.— LEAE OF RED MAPLE. 



92 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



their distribution, not only among different trees growing under 
exactly the same conditions, but on different parts of the same 
tree. Sometimes the leaves on a single branch will change to 
an intense crimson or scarlet, while those on other branches will 
retain their normal color until cut by frosts. Then, again, one 
tree in a row will assume the scarlet or crimson color, and those 
adjoining will show very little, if any coloring, except perhaps 
a faded red or yellow ; but the very next season these colors 
may be reversed. 

The Red Maple is not only a handsome tree, but well worth 
cultivating, both for ornamental and useful purposes. There 
are several varieties in cultivation, but not sufficiently distinct 
as to have attracted much attention. Acer ruhrum fulgens is a 
dwarf variety, and A. r. globosum is a variety with a globose, or 
round head, while A, r. pyramidalis is a very distinct pyrami- 
dal form. 

A. Spieatnm. — Mountain Maple. — Leaves slightly three-lobed; 
coarsely toothed ; downy beneath, with dense, upright racemes 
of flowers appearing very late in the spring, succeeded by small 
seeds with narrow wings. It is only a small shrub, six to ten 
feet high, found in the Northern Border States and on some of 
the higher mountains southward. 

A. PeimsylTaiiicum. — Striped-bark Maple, Moose-wood, Striped 
Dog-wood. — Leaves large, thin, somewhat heart-shaped, but 
with three-pointed, serrated lobes. Flowers greenish, in termi- 
nal racemes, appearing after the leaves. Seeds with large, diver- 
gent wings. A small tree, with light-green bark, striped with 
darker lines. Sometimes cultivated as an ornamental shrub or 
small tree. 

A. circinatnm. — Round-leaved, or Vine Maple. — Leaves rounded; 
seven to nine lobes ; serrate. Flowers purplish, in small clus- 
ters. The wings of the seed diverging in a straight line. A tall 
shrub, but in some situations reaching a hight of thirty to forty 
feet. A native of Northern California, and northward to 
British Columbia. AYood very hard and fine-grained, but not 
plentiful enough of large size to be worthy of much attention. 

A. macrophyllum. — Large-leaved Maple, California Maple. — 
Leaves very large, deeply five to seven-lobed, with very coarse 
teeth. Flowers of a yellowish color, in a compact raceme. 
Fruit hairy, with large, broad wings. A very large tree, 
sometimes one hundred feet high, with stem five feet or more 



FOREST TREES. 



93 



in diameter, but only on very favorable situations does it 
grow to such a size. Wood very hard, resembling that of the 
Sugar Maple, and one of the best and most valuable hard woods 
found west of the Rocky Mountains. The sap is sweet, and 
yields a fair quality of sugar. This maple occurs in California, 
from Santa Barbara, and northward, to Washington Territory. 
It is a tree well worthy of the attention of arboriculturists, 
East as well as in the West ; but the seed should be procured 
from Northern localities, and from large trees, else the plants 
are likely to be tender and of slow growth in localities east of 
the mountains. 

A. grandidentatum. — Mountain Sugar Maple. — Leaves slightly 
cordate or truncate at the base, pubescent beneath, and rather 
deeply three-lobed; lobes acute with a few sinuous indentations. 
Flowers few ; the petals nodding. Seed smooth, with small, 
diverging wings. This species, although closely related to the 
Sugar Maple, does not attain a very large size, seldom growing 
more than thirty feet high. It is found in Arizona, Southern 
Utah, and on the west side of the Mountains, near the head- 
waters of the Columbia, principally in the valleys, and near 
small streams. 

A. glabrum. — Smooth-leaved Mountain Maple. — Leaves smooth, 
two to four inches broad, rounded, heart-shaped in outline, 
with rather shallow indentations, although occasionally dis- 
tinctly three-lobed ; the lobes doubly serrated, with acute teeth. 
Flower in large corymbs, on short branchlets ; greenish-yellow. 
Seeds, with broad-spreading wings, ripen late in fall. Quite a 
variable species, both in leaves, color of the branches, and form 
of growth. This species probably grows at a higher elevation 
in the Rocky Mountains than any other native maple. I have 
found it abundant in Colorado and New Mexico, at an elevation 
of ten thousand feet. In exposed situations, on the sides of a 
canyon, it was merely a tall shrub, with many stems springing 
from the same root, probably because frequently killed down 
in winter ; but where protected by other trees, it assumes an 
upright form, growing thirty or more feet high. Wood quite 
hard, and fine-grained, but, as generally found, it is too small 
for any practical use except for firewood. Common in the 
mountains of Northern New Mexico, Colorado, and west to the 
Sierra Nevada, and northward to Vancouver's Island. 

A. Negundo, or Bfegimdo aceroides. — Negundo Maple, Box Elder, 
Ash-leaved Maple. — ^Although our modern botanists consider 



94 



rEACTICAL FOKESTEY. 



this tree sufficiently distinct to be separated from the true 
maples, it is however so closely allied to them, that for conveni- 
ence's sake I have named it here. Negiindo aceroides is the gen- 
eric name most generally employed in botanical works of the 
present day. The pistillate and staminate flowers are produced 
on different trees ; consequently, in order to raise fertile seeds, 
both sexes must be present, or the trees not far distant. Leaves, 
pinnately three to five-foliate, the leaflets ovate or oblong, either 
lobed or toothed. Flowers small ; greenish ; the fertile ones in 
racemes from lateral buds, and appearing with or before the 
leaves. The seeds are oblong, extending about half the length 
of the wing, ripening in late summer or autumn. Wood mod- 
erately fine, white, and makes good fuel when well seasoned. 

tree thirty to sixty feet high and two feet or more in diameter. 
A widely-distributed species, being found in Vermont, and 
westward to Utah, and southward in the canyons of New Mexico 
and Arizona ; also in Florida and Texas. A very hardy tree, and 
has been planted quite extensively in Minnesota, and the colder 
region of the Northwest. It is a very rapid grower while young, 
but does not continue and become so large a tree as some other 
species of Maple already named. The California Box Elder 
{Negundo Calif or nicum) resembles the Eastern species very 
closely, and was previously considered to be identical, but may 
be distinguished by its smaller and narrower leaflets, which are 
coarsely toothed, but less distinctly lobed. 

There is a species of the Negundo indigenous to Mexico and 
another to Japan, making ^f our known to botanists. Varieties 
occur among them all, but tliose in cultivation in this country 
are of our native species. One of the most showy of these is 
the Variegated Negundo, the leaves being distinctly marked 
with white, but the tree is rather delicate and often kills down 
in winter, still an occasional specimen T\'ill escape injury for 
many years. There is one specimen at Rye, Westchester, 
County, N. Y., now over twenty years old, that has never been 
injured by the cold of winter or burning sun of summer. 

The Crisp-leaved Negundo is another distinct and interesting 
cut-leaved variety, and another known as Violacea, so named 
on account of the peculiar color of the bark on the young 
branches. This last is a very vigorous-growing tree, and the 
young shoots rather larger than those of the species. A pistil- 
late tree of this variety, twenty years old, in my grounds fruits 
heavily every year, but there being no staminate tree of either 



FOKEST TREES. 



95 



the species, or any of the various varieties within several miles 
of it. the seeds produced are false. I have purposely kept this 
tree isolated from the other sex of the same species in order 
to see if by chance the flowers would be fertilized by some of 
the other sx)ecies by which it is surrounded, for in that case a 
hybrid might be produced, but thus far nothing of the kind has 
occurred, and the seeds of the Negundo have been uniformly 
unfertile. 

FOREIGi^" SPECIES OF THE MAPLE. 

There are no European or Asiatic species of the Maple that 
for general usefulness are superior to the best of our indigenous 
species. But there are a large number of species and varieties 
well worthy of cultivation for ornamental purposes, and a few 
may be considered as useful forest trees. 

EUROPEAN MAPLES. 

A. Pseudo-PIatanus. — Sycamore Maple. — A very large tree with 
rather coarse spreading branches and deeply, five-lobed leaves, 
rather downy beneath, and long reddish petioles (leaf -stalks). 
The seeds are produced in long, pendulous, spreading racemes, 
not in clusters or corymbs as in the Sugar, White, and Scarlet 
Maples. The Sycamore Maple is a very vigorous and rapid 
grower, even superior in this respect to our Sugar Maple, but 
its branches are coarser and not so numerous, hence the trees, 
when planted in streets 02 as single specimens on lawns or in 
parks, appear to lack that fullness and grace of outline that 
are so characteristic of the Sugar Maple. In Europe, the tree 
grows to a great size, sometimes reaching a hundred feet high. 
The wood is hard, close grained and valuable for many pur- 
poses. Old trees planted in this country produce seed in great 
abundance, and are usually to be obtained of dealers very 
cheaply. 

There are several very handsome and desirable varieties of 
the Sycamore Maple in cultivation. The following are the 
most distinct : The Golden-leaved has deep, yellow leaves, 
occasionally streaked or mottled. Purple-leaved, leaves purple 
underneath and dark green above — the leaf -stalks also purple or 
reddish, a handsome and vigorous growing tree. Three-colored 
or Tricolor, leaves curiously streaked with red, white and 
green. Silver Striped, leaves striped and streaked with white, 
a very distinct and handsome variety, especially in spring when 
the leaves first expand. Velvet-leaved, a curious variety, with 



96 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



velvety green leaves, but of rather dwarfish habit. Worle's 
Golden-leaved, leaves spotted with yellow. Leopold's Striped- 
leaved, leaves streaked with green, yellow, and white. Doug- 
las's Sycamore Maple, leaves quite small, pointed, and of a 
uniform yellowish color. 

A. plantanoides; — Norway Maple. — A large round-headed tree, 
resembling in general appearance the Sugar Maple, but is a 
slower grower, at least this has been my experience with it, 
and I think most cultivators of it will agree with me on this 
point, but Mr. F. J. Scott, in his notes on this species in "Su- 
burban Home Grounds" says : "This species has a more vigor- 
ous growth than the Sugar Maple." From my experience 
I should not expect a Norway seedling to reach more than one- 
half the size of the Sugar Maple in the same number of years. 
The leaves are larger and thicker than those of the Sugar Maple, 
but of the same rich, green color. The young twigs and buds 
are a little coarser, but the bark on the twigs, larger branches, 
and stem of the trees is very similar in general appearance to 
that of the Sugar Maple. 

The Norway Maple i^a valuable forest tree, although it is of 
rather slow growth while young, but it is worthy of the atten- 
tion of tree planters in our Northern States. The trees produce 
seeds freely, even when of only moderate size, and can be ob- 
tained in almost unlimited quantities from trees growing in this 
country. There are quite a number of varieties of the Norway 
Maple, among which the following are probably the most dis- 
tinct : Cut-leaved (dissectum), leaves regularly and deeply 
divided into almost three equal parts, and of a clear, glossy 
green color. Eagle's Claw, leaves cut, pointed and curled at 
the point into a resemblence of an eagle's claw, hence the 
name. Curled-leaved, leaves more curled, but deeply cut like 
the Eagle's Claw, but stiU distinct. Schwerdler's Norway 
Maple, leaves while young variegated with deep, reddish purple, 
and sometimes the second growth in summer is similarly 
marked, a handsome variety. Reitenback's Norway Maple, a 
new variety somewhat like the above, but may prove to be dis- 
tinct. Lorberg's Maple, leaves deeply cut but of a bright, 
reddish color while young. 

A. eampestre. — English Field Maple. — Although this species is 
very widely known as the English Maple, it is not confined to 
Great Britan, but is found well distributed over Western Europe. 
It is but a small tree when full grown, seldom exceeding thirty 



FOREST TEEES. 



97 



feet in hight ; consequently of no great value except for orna- 
mental purposes. It forms a pretty little tree with roundish- 
lobed leaves, twigs and smaller branches covered with corky 
bark. It is well adapted to grounds of limited extent, and for 
planting near buildings, as its roots do not spread to a great 
distance. There are several varieties in cultivation, but none 
possessing any special merit, although they may be introduced 
to increase the number of varieties whenever this is an object. 
There is one very pretty variety with variegated leaves, and 
several others with foliage varying somewhat from the species. 
About a dozen varieties are enumerated in European nursery- 
men's catalogues. 

A. Tartaricum. — Tartarian Maple. — A small tree growing about 
twenty feet high, native of Tartary. Leaves small, irregular 
rounded, light colored, bark very smooth. A handsome, little, 
round-headed tree. A variety of this, called the Ginnala Maple 
(A. T. ginnala) has smaller leaves than the species, otherwise 
very similar, 

A. monspessnlanniii, — Montpelier Maple. — A small species, or 
perhaps only a variety from France. It is merely a large shrub 
with small palmate leaves. There are several other shrubby 
maples in cultivation from Central and Southern Europe, that 
are by some authors classed as species, by others, only as varie- 
ties. Among these I may mention Lobel's Maple (A, Lobelii), 
or the Italian Maple, leaves of a pea-green color with rather ob- 
tuse lobes. This is considered by the best European authorities 
as a variety of the Norway Maple. The Three-lobed Maple 
{A. trilobatum) is another species or variety from Southern 
Europe. 

JAPAK MAPLES. 

These Maples are of comparatively recent introduction, but 
they have been with us long enough to allow of an opportunity 
to test their merits, and their adaptation to the soil and climate 
of this country. In these maples we have an excellent illustra- 
tion of the skill of the Japanese, not only in the production, 
but in the preservation and propagating of varieties of trees 
and other plants indigenous to their country. 

While it is not supposed that any of the Japan Maples possess 
any great economic value, they are unsurpassed for ornament- 
al purposes. In fact, their introduction has been an agreeable 
surprise to the arboriculturists of both Europe and America, for 
5 



98 



PEACTICAL EORESTRT. 



they are distinct from all other species and varieties of the 
maple. Just how many different species of maple are indige- 
nous to Japan is not positively known, some botanists making 
more and others less. There are probably four or five, and of 
these the Japanese have many varieties in cultivation, and 
some twenty or more have been introduced and pretty well 
tested in this country, and have, upon the whole, proved to be 
hardy and moderately vigorous growers for small trees or 
shrubs that are never expected to reach more than a few feet 
in hight. The varieties are grafted upon seedlings of the wild 
species from the forests of Japan, as none of our native maples 
seem to answer as stocks. 

The five best recognized species of Japan Maples now in cul- 
tivation in this country are : A, carpinifolium, A, Japonicum, 
A. Polymorphum, A. mflnerve, and A, epimedifoUum. 

There is also another, the Colchicum-leaved (A. colcliicum 
riihrum), sometimes classed as a species, but this as well as 
several others described in nurserymen's catalogues are not 
assigned to their proper places as species. They are all pretty 
little trees, with leaves of various forms and colors, but the 
Polymorphum furnishes the greatest and most unique varieties 
of all. They have leaves of various shades of color, from pure 
green to the richest rose and crinison, and the foliage of some 
are so finely cut that it appears more like the feathers of some 
gaudy-colored bird than that of leaves of a hardy tree or shrub. 
Some of the varieties have leaves handsomely variegated with 
white, green, and yellow, and these colors are retained nearly 
the entire season. Words, however skilfully applied in a de- 
scription of these pretty little trees, would scarcely convey a cor- 
rect idea of their peculiar beauty, for they must be seen to be 
fully appreciated. Acer ruflnerve is a carious species, with 
leaves resembling those of the grape, but streaked with white. 

JESCULUS. — Horse- Chestnuts. 

The Horse-Chesnuts have little to recommend them, except 
for ornamental purposes, as their wood is of a poor quality, 
although it is employed to a limited extent for making certain 
household utensils. They produce large, chestnut-like seeds, 
enclosed in leathery pods, which at maturity split open into 
three valves or divisions. There are from one to three nuts in 
each pod, varying in number with the different species. All 
the different species and varieties are ornamental, and worthy 



FOREST TREES. 



90 



of cultivation for this purpose. I will remark here that some 
botanists place all the species of horse-chestnuts with smooth 
fruits under the generic name of Pavia, and the rough under 
j^sculus ; but as some have fruit intermediate between the two, 
I have followed the most common arrangement, placing all 
under one generic name. The following are native species : 

^sculns Californica. — California Horse-Chestnut . — Leaves com- 
posed of five slender-stalked leaflets. Flowers white, or tinged 
with rose, borne in long, raceme-like panicles. Fruit large, 
with a few rough points on the pod, enclosing the smooth nuts. 
A small tree or small shrub, varying greatly in size, according 
to locality and soil. Wood soft, and of no value. Indigenous 
to Cahfomia. 

M* parviflora. — Dwarf Buckeye. — Leaves composed of from 
five to seven leaflets ; soft, downy underneath. Flowers white, 
in a long, erect raceme, appearing late in spring, or in the North 
about mid-summer. Fruit smooth. Seeds small. Native of the 
Southern States, but extensively cultivated in the Northern 
States as an ornamental shrub. 

M* glabra. — Fetid, or Ohio Buckeye. — Leaflets five ; quite 
smooth. Flowers yellow, or yellowish white, in rather short 
panicles. Fruit prickly and rough. Only a moderate-sized, 
tall, slender tree, common west of the Alleghanies, Virginia, 
Tennessee, Ohio, and Missouri. Wood rather soft and of but 
little value. 

M» flava. — Yellow, or Sweet Buckeye. — Leaves with five to 
seven smooth leafiets. Flowers yellow, in a short, compact 
raceme. Fruit large, smooth, or with a rough, leathery surface, 
the pods often assuming a bright-yellow color when mature in 
the fall. Native of Indiana, and southward along the Alleghany 
Mountains to Northern Alabama and Georgia, and westward to 
the Indian Territory. This is quite a variable species ; some- 
times only a large shrub, while in favorable soils it grows to a 
large tree sixty to seventy feet high, with stem two or more feet 
in diameter. When planted singly, and when the branches are 
not crowded, it forms a globular head of handsome proportions. 
Wood light, soft, and not inclined to split, and used for troughs, 
bread trays, wooden bowls, shuttles, where a light, rather tough 
wood will answer. There is a native variety of this species, 
known as the Purple Buckeye, that has both calyx and petals 
tinged with purple. 



100 



PKACTICAL FOEESTKY. 



M» Pa via.— Red Buckeye. — Very similar to the last, and by 
some considered only a variety, but by others as a distinct spe- 
cies. It is a shrub, or at best only a small tree, with bright-red , 
flowers, A very showy and handsome jjlant. Natural varieties 
of all the above-named species occur in the forests where these 
trees abound, and quite a number have been secured and are 
now propagated for sale by our nurseiymen. In addition to 
these natural varieties, others are constantly occurring among 
seedlings raised under artificial conditions. For Spanish Buck- 
eye, see Unganadia, 

FOEEIGK SPECIES A.^T> VARIETIES. 

M» Hippocastannm. — European Horse-Chestnut. — This tree is 
supposed to have been brought from Asia, although its native 
country is not positively known. It has been cultivated for 
many centuries in Southern Europe, and for more than three 
hundred years in Great Britain, and is eveiy where much admired 
as an ornamental tree. Each leaf is composed of seven leaflets, 
and these are of the purest green color, but not glossy or shining. 
The flowers are large, white, spotted with purple, produced in 
large, compact spikes, making a splendid appearance among the 
rich, green leaves. A grand ornamental tree, hardy in nearly 
all of our Northern States, and thriving in a great variety of 
soils, but succeeds best in a rather compact loam or clay. In 
light, sandy soils it often fails for want of moisture at the root. 
The Double White Flowering " is a superb variety, bearing long 
panicles of very double flowers. The trees commence blooming 
when quite young, and seldom fail to produce flowers in great 
abundance. The ' 'Cut-leaved Horse-Chestnut " is another variety • 
with deeply-cut foliage. Memminger's Horse-Chestnut " has 
its f ohage sprinkled and spotted with white. In another variety 
the leaves are spotted with green. There are about a dozen 
additional varieties mentioned in the catalogues of European 
nurserymen, but those named above are the best. 

M* rubicunda. — Red-Flowering Horse-Chestnut. — The origin of 
this tree is unknown, but it is supposed to be a hybrid between 
the White Flowering and some species of the Eed Buckeye. 
Leaves of five to seven leaflets. Flowers of a bright, rosy-red 
color, in large panicles. One of the handsomest and most showy 
trees in cultivation. This tree grows to a hight of thirty feet, 
or more, with a close, compact form. There are several varie- 
ties, varying in habits of growth, color of the flower, or form of 



FOREST TREES. 



101 



foliage ; but none are superior as an ornamental tree to the 
original or parent stock. 

AILAOTUS, Oil AILANTO. 

*'Tree of Heaven" is a free translation of the Chinese name 
Ailanto, but Ailantus glandulosa is the generally recognized 
scientific name of a large tree of the Quassia family, native of 
China, and introduced into English gardens in the middle of the 
last century, and since distributed over Europe and the greater 
part of America. It is a large, spreading tree, with coarse, 
blunt, stiff branches, clothed in summer Vv^ith long, unequally 
pinnate leaves— not unlike in form those of our common Stag- 
horn Sumach. The stem is usually very straight ; bark smooth, 
of a light, grayish color. This tree was introduced into the 
United States early in the present century, and attracted con- 
siderable attention as an ornamental tree. Owing to its re- 
markably rapid growth, its somewhat unique appearance, and 
the rapidity with which it could be propagated, nurserymen 
were encouraged to extol it very highly and urge it upon their 
customers, far and wide. For a number of years it was in great 
demand, and the "Tree of Heaven" became very popular as a 
street tree in all of the larger cities and villages, besides being 
extensively planted in public and private parks and gardens. 
But so soon as the trees reached a bearing age, it was discovered 
that the flowers emitted a most sickening and disagreeable 
odor, and this called forth as loud and widespread denuncia- 
tions, as had formerly been bestowed in high praise of this tree. 
Thousands were cut down, but where the roots were not dug 
uj) entire, the pieces left in the ground sprouted, and in many 
instances produced a forest of trees, where previously there had 
been but one. This sprouting appears to be a natural charac- 
teristic of the tree, and when the roots are disturbed, broken, or 
otherwise injured in working the soil, the habit is intensified 
many fold. From whence came the disagreeable odor, or from 
which sex of the flowers, has been a subject that has provoked 
much discussion ; but it is usually credited to the staminate 
flowers borne on trees distinct and se^Darate from those pro- 
ducing pistillate, and this has led some nurserymen to seek this 
sex from which to propagate a stock of odorless plants. But 
while this is a step in the right direction, it is not likely to be 
successful, except in the hands of very close and accurate ob- 
servers ; for, in fact, there are three kinds of Ailantus flowers, 



102 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



instead of two, as usually claimed. The flowers of this tree are, 
to use a scientific-term, "polygamous," i, e., having some per- 
fect and some imperfect on the same, or on different individual 
trees. They are small, of a greenish color, produced in terminal, 
much- branched panicles, with five short sepals and five petals, 
and ten stamens in the sterile flower, and either none, or few, 
in the fertile. These three varieties of flowers may be found on 
different or separate trees. Those having stamens and pistils 
and those with stamens only, are highly odorous. The first pro- 
duces seed ; the second are barren. The third kind of flowers 
produce pistils only, and are inodorous, but, like the first, are 
succeeded by fruit. From the above it may be seen that we have 
two odorous varieties of the Ailantus, one barren, and the other 
productive. But the third variety, while it produces fruit when 
growing in the neighborhood of either of the other two, is en- 
tirely inodorous, consequently is the only one to be propagated 
when the odor of the Ailantus' flowers are an objection. As the 
Ailantus is readily propagated by cuttings of the roots, made in 
the fall, and packed away in moss or clean sand during the win- 
ter, it will not be at all difficult to raise any number of inodor- 
ous trees. The pieces of roots should be kept moist and in a 
temperature where they will not freeze, but not warm enough 
to excite growth. Placing in boxes, and intermixed with sand 
and then buried in some dry place in the field or garden, is 
usually a safe way to preserve them until wanted for planting 
in spring. Only the smaller roots, or those of a half inch to 
an inch in diameter need be used for cuttings, and these may 
be taken from the extremity of large trees of the right sort, 
without destroying the parent stock. The severed roots will 
produce new ones from their ends the following season, and 
these may be again removed, if required. Thus one tree may 
furnish cuttmgs for many years in succession, only care should 
be exercised in not drawing so strongly on the parent stock as 
to km it. 

In raising trees for a large forest, it would probably be better 
to resort to seedlings, instead of cuttings. The seeds grow 
freely when sown in the fall, or they may be kept over until 
spring, by storing in some moderately cool place. The Ailantus 
will thrive in poor Ught soils, where many other trees would 
fail, as the roots penetrate the earth very deeply, and spread a 
great distance, in search of nourishment. The wood is fine- 
grained, yellowish-white, excellent for cabinet-work and inside 



rOKEST TEEES. 



103 



finish, and it also makes excellent fuel. In our more Northern 
States, say above latitude forty degrees, the young trees are often 
killed back in winter, owing to their vigorous and succulent 
growth. The leaves of the Ailantus furnish food for the Bombyx 
Cynthia^ a species of silkworm. In Japan a cloth is made from 
the silk produced by worms fed on the leaves of this tree, which 
is not so fine in texture as that made by the common silk- 
worm, but is much more durable. A few attempts have been 
made to introduce this culture in this country. No doubt it 
could be made successful, but at the present price of labor its 
profit wouldbe problematical. 

As an ornamental tree, the Ailantus is certainly worthy of a 
place in a collection of trees ; but I do not think it worthy of 
much attention for other purposes, because we have many supe- 
rior native species that do not possess the objectionable proper- 
ties of the Ailantus. When that tree once becomes established, 
it is very difiicult to dislodge in any other way than to clear the 
land, and then cultivate it almost constantly for several years 
in succession. 

It has been urged in favor of this tree, that it will grow in the 
most barren soils, and where few other trees will thrive, and 
while in a measure this may be true, I am inclined to think that 
we can not only get along without the Ailantus, but it has been 
more of a nuisance than an acquisition to our list of valuable 
deciduous trees. 

ALi^jJS,— Alder, 

The Alders, natives of North America, are principally shrubs, 
or trees of moderate size, although of some species, specimens 
reaching a hight of seventy or eighty feet are occasionally met 
with in favorable locations. The flowers are very minute, 
monoecious, produced in catkinp, the fertile ones oval, and 
composed of thick, woody persistent scales, enclosing small, 
nut-like seeds, either winged or wingless. The Alders thrive 
best in damp soils along the borders of streams and ponds, and 
some of them are valuable for planting in such situations. The 
timber is almost inperishable in water, and when large enough, 
may be employed for aU kinds of cabinet work, it is largly em- 
ployed for making charcoal used in the manufacture of gun- 
powder. The bark is employed in dyeing and tanning. 

Alnus incana.— Speckled Alder, Hoary Alder, Black Alder. — 
Leaves broadly-ovate, rounded at the base, serrate and sometimes 



104 



PKACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



coarsely toothed, white and downy beneath. Generally a low 
shrub, but occasionally a small tree twenty or thirty feet high. 
Native of Northern Europe, Newfoundland, New England, and 
westward nearly across the continent. Wood very hard and 
heavy, and makes excellent fuel and charcoal, but does not 
grow large enough to be worthy of much attention. A variety 
of this species (A. ineana var. virescens) is more or less abun- 
dant among the mountains of Oregon and southward to New 
Mexico. 

A. Tiridis. — Green or Mountain Alder. — This, like the other 
older and long-known species has many synonyms in botanical 
works. Leaves roundish oval or oval, somewhat viscid or 
sticky. Seeds with a broad wing. A small shrub, native of 
Europe and North America, found very far to the north on 
this continent and southward along the mountains to North 
Carolina. 

A. serrulata. — Smooth Alder. — Leaves obovate-acute at the base, 
sharply serrate with very fine teeth, smooth and green on both 
sides. A shrub or small tree twenty feet high. Seeds ovate 
and wingless. Common from New England southward to 
Florida. This species is also known as (A. glutinosa) in some 
botanical works and catalogues. 

A. Maritima, — Sea-side Alder. — Closely allied to the above, if 
not identical, but some authors have claimed that it is really a 
distinct species, although leaves and fruit are as in A, ser- 
rulata. Common on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, and in Del- 
aware. A variety of this, known as (A, maritima var. arguta), 
is a native of Japan. 

A. oMongifolia. — Oblong-leaved Alder. — Leaves thick, oblong- 
lanceolate, smooth above and slightly pubescent beneath, two 
to four inches long. Seeds broadly-ovate, wings very narrow. 
A tree thirty to forty feet high, and in some instances sixty to 
eighty feet, with a stem two feet in diameter. Wood excellent 
and hard, taking a good polish. New Mexico, west to Santa 
Barbara, Cal. One of the largest species of Alders known. 

A. rhombifolia. — ^White Alder of California and Oregon. — 
Leaves smaller than the last, or from two to three inches long, 
rounded or pointed at the summit, and wedge shape at the 
base, smooth above and thinly pubescent beneath. Seeds 
broadly ovate with thickened margin. Oregon to Southern 



FOEEST TREES. 



105 



California. A tree from twenty to thirty feet high, but some- 
times more. 

A. rubra. — Eed Alder. — Leaves thick, rusty pubescent beneath, 
four to eight inches long, coarsely toothed. Seeds obovate, 
surrounded by a narrow, membraneous wing. The branches 
are rather stout and coarse, with bark of dark brown, dotted 
with white. A tree thirty to forty feet high on the Pacific 
Coast, from Sitka to Southern California, and common on the 
hills about Oakland, in the vicinity of San Francisco. This is 
the Alnus Oregona of Nuttall's ''North American Sylva," and 
also of catalogues. 

Of foreign species of the Alder there are more varieties than 
species in cultivation, but there are none which grow to a 
larger size, or are of more value as forest trees than those found 
indigenous to North America, in fact, the Alders of both conti- 
nents seem to be very closely allied and probably all spring 
from the same original stock. Some very handsome varieties 
are cultivated in nurseries, especially those with finely cut 
leaves. These are propagated by grafting, although all the 
species and varieties of the Alder may be readily propagated by 
cuttings planted in low, moist soils. The seeds also germinate 
readily, and may be gathered and treated the same as those of 
the maple, and similar forest trees. 

AMELAKCHiER. — Ju7ie-Berry , Service- Berry, Sliadhiislu 

Of this genus we have only one indigenous species that grows 
large enough to be classed among trees. The flowers are small, 
pure white, produced in long racemes, and in such great 
abundance in early spring that the trees become conspicuous 
and attractive objects scattered along the banks of thousands 
of the small streams and rivers throughout the country, for 
this species, or some of its varieties inhabit almost every square 
mile of forest from Hudson's Bay in the north, southward to 
Florida, and westward to the Pacific, and even growing at an 
altitude of ten thousand feet in the Eocky Mountains. 

Amelancliicr Canadensis. — Eastern Shadbush. — Leaves simple, 
sharply serrate. Flowers white. Fruit small, berry-like, roundish, 
purple when ripe, sweet or sprightly, sub-acid, edible. A small 
tree, but sometimes fifty feet high, with stem a foot or more 
in diameter, wood hard, very heavy, and resembling that of the 
apple tree. This is an exceeding variable species, and it runs 
into many forms or varieties, to which distinct names have 



lOG 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



been given in botanical works, and nurserymen's catalogues. The 
best known of these are : Yar. Botryapium, leaves ovate-ob- 
long, sometimes heart-shaped, (fig. 28). Flowers larger than 
the above and more showy. Yar. oNongifolia, leaves oblong, 
while downy when young, racemes and petioles shorter than 
those of the last. Yar. rotundifolia, leaves broader and more 
oval, sometimes nearly round, and the racemes of flowers short. 
Yar. oligocarpa (var. pumila) of catalogues, leaves smooth, 



Fig. 26.— DWARF JTJ>rE-BERBT. 

narrow oblong, racemes of only three or four flowers. A very 
dwarf shrub, seldom more than three or four feet high. Fruit 
quite large and usually more abundant than on the taller grow- 
ing varieties. 

A. alnifolia. — ^Alder-leaved Shadbush. — Leaves broadly-ovate 
or rounded, obtuse at both ends, or somewhat cordate at base. 
Racemes of flowers short. A low shrub, perhaps only a variety 
of A, Canadensis, found west of the Rocky Mountains, and 
northward to British Columbia. 

AMYRis. — Torch Wood. 

Trees and shrubs of Tropical America, with opposite com- 
pound leaves, mostly of a single pair, or trifoliate pinnate. 



FOKEST TREES. 107 

Only one species reaching as far north as the United States, 
and this only in Southern Flordia. 

Amyris sylvatica. — {A. Floridana, Nutt.) Florida Torch-wood. — 
Leaves small with divided ovate jDinnse. Flowers with four 
white petals. Fruit purple, containing one seed or nut. 
Wood yellowish-white, close-grained and susceptible of a high 
polish, and the wood is also fragrant, having a balsamic odor. 
A small tree of no value except for cultivation in tropical 
climates. 

Andromeda-arborea. — See Oxydendron. 

ARALiA. — A7igeUca Tree. 

There are several indigenous species of plants belonging to 
this genus, but only one with a woody stem, the others are 
herbaceous plants. 

Aralia spinosa. — Hercules' Club. — Leaves very large, crowded at 
the summit of the stem, bipinnatedly compound. Flowers 
minute, white, in very large panicles, succeeded by small, 
berry-like, black fruit. The stem and branches are very 
prickly, especially while young. A well-known shrub or small 
tree, often cultivated in gardens on account of the tropical 
appearance of its immense compound leaves. Not quite hardy 
in the more Northern States, the stems are often killed down 
in winter, but the roots usually survive, and throw up vigorous 
shoots in the spring. Native of Southern Pennsylvania, Ken- 
tucky, and southward to Florida, and westward to Texas. In 
Southern swamps it sometimes reaches a hight of fifty feet, 
with a stem a foot in diameter. A tree desirable only as a 
curiosity or for ornament. The roots if disturbed throw up 
suckers in great numbers. Readily propagated from seeds or 
cuttings of the roots. 

There are several Asiatic species and varieties, several of 
which are now quite common in gardens. The Aralia chi- 
nensis, also known as A, canescens, A. elata, also Dimorphan- 
thus elatus, Miguel, or D. manschuricus, Maximowicz, is as 
hardy as our indigenous species, and the flowers are in larger 
jianicles. A Japanese species, Aralia Japonica of Thunberg, and 
Fatsia Japonica of Decaisne and Planchon, has yielded several 
handsome varieties with variegated foliage, but these are of 
more interest as ornamental shrubs, than as useful trees. 



108 



PEACTICAL FORESTKY. 



AEBUTUS TREE. — Madrono. 

A genus of trees or sliurbs containing but five species, prin- 
cipallv belonging to the temperate regions of the Old World, 
the most famihar of these is the Strawberry-tree {A. Unedo) of 
which there are several varieties. There are also two or three 
species found in Mexico, and one or two Asiatic species, but 
the one of the most interest to the arboriculturists is the 
Madrono, found on the west coast, or 

Arbutus 3Ieiizeiesii. — Menzies' Arbutus. — Its synonyms are A, 
laurifola, Lindley. A. procera, Douglass. A. Texana, Buckley. 
Leaves oval or oblong, either entire or serrulate, pale beneath, 
bright green above. Flowers vv'hite, in dense racemes. Fiaiit a 
berry, dry. orange colored with a rough surface, not edible. 
A splendid, large tree, eighty to one hundred feet high, with 
a stem two to three feet in diameter in Northern California, 
but smaller southward. Wood white, very hard, but brittle. 
A tree is mentioned in Geological Survey of California, Botany, 
Vol. I., found in Marin County, measured twenty-three 
feet in circumference at the smallest part of the stem below 
the branches, and some of the branches were three feet in 
diameter. South of San Francisco Bay it is usually a small, 
spreading tree or shi-ub. From Puget Sound southward to 
Arizona, and eastward to Texas, As this tree appears to thrive 
best in cool cUmates — at least it grows larger in Northern Cali- 
fornia than anywhere south — it may prove of value as an orna- 
mental tree in our Atlantic States. 

AECTOSTAPHYLOs. — Mauzau it a. 

Shrubs or small trees, with alternate leaves of a leathery tex- 
ture, nearly entire or with fine irregular teeth. Flowers white, 
or rose-colored in terminal racemes, succeeded by small, plum 
like fruits, containing five to ten separate or separable long 
seed-Uke stones. In propagating these plants, the seed should 
not be permitted to get thoroughly dry. The fruit may be 
placed in heaps or in masses, imtil the pulp becomes softened, 
then the seed washed out and either sown immediately, or put 
away in moist eaiiih or sand, until the time arrives for sowing 
in spring or fall. 

The following seven species are only shrubs : A. Andersonii, 
six to ten feet high. Fruit reddish, Santa Cruz, Cal. A, tomen- 
tosa, two to six feet. Fruit red, smooth. Used for making a 
cooling sub-acid drink, From Puget Sound to Southern Calif or- 



FOEEST TEEE3. 



109 



nia on dry hills. A, nummularia. Erect, but only one or two 
feet high. Yery leafy, like the Dwarf -box. A. Uva-Ursi (Bear- 
berry). Trailing leaves, thick and evergreen. This is the Kin- 
nikinick of the Western Indians, and is found on rocky, bare 
hills throughout the northern j)art of Europe, Asia, and 
America. A, pumila, is a closely allied species to the last, but 
stems erect. California. A. Alpina, dwarf, tufted. Fruit 
black. Alpine region of Europe, and North America. A. x>oli- 
folia, erect, five to eight feet high. Fruit dark iDurple, minutely 
warty. Southern Cahf ornia. 

Arctostapliylos liicolor, Gray. — An erect shrub, three to four feet 
high. Flowers rose-color. Fruit small, the size of a i)ea, yellow, 
turning to red, and from one to five seeds in each. California' 
San Diego, and near Monterey. 

A. pungens. — California Manzanita. — Leaves with a long stem, 
oblong-lanceolate or oval. Flowers crowded in a short raceme. 
Fruit reddish. A small tree, twenty to thirty feet high, but on 
the mountains only a small shrub. Wood very hard, heavy, 
and the color of mahogany. Excellent for the finer kinds of 
cabinet work. Southern Utah, Arizona, California, and Mexico. 

A. glauca. — Leaves very stiff, oblong, slightly heart-shaped. 
Fruit red, large, smooth, nut enclosed in a thin pulp. This is 
known in California as the Great-berried Manzanita, as the fruit 
is sometimes three-fourths of an inch in diameter. A small 
tree twenty feet high, with stem sometimes a foot in diameter. 

AKDISIA. 

A genus containing many species of handsome evergreen 
shrubs, or small trees, native of tropical countries, valued for 
their handsome foliage, small but showy flowers, and pretty 
berries, which are usually very persistent, remaining a long 
time attached to the plant. One species in the United States. 

Ardisia Plckeringia. — ^Leaves smooth, oblong-ovate, obtuse, en- 
tire two inches long, narrowed at base, into a short petiole, pale 
beneath. Flowers small, in short terminal racemes. A large 
shrub or small tree, twenty to thirty feet high. Southern 
Florida, west to Mexico, also in the West Indies. Ardisia Japon- 
ica is quite a favorite for green-house culture, on account of 
its bright and persistent berries. All the species easily multi- 
plied from seed or cuttings of the young shoots. 



110 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



ASiMii^'A. — Papaiv, Custard A2)i:)le, 

Small trees or shrubs, with deciduous leaves. Fruit large, in 
clusters, pulpy, containing several large flattish seeds. The 
Papaw is an edible fruit, and those who become accustomed 
to its use consider it excellent and well worth cultivating. The 
species are : 

Asimina triloba. — Leaves oblong-ovate, pointed, covered with 
a rusty pubescence, and the young branches are shghtly covered 
with the same, but become smooth with age. The lea^'es are 

quite large, sometimes 
nearly a foot long, and 
half as wide on young 
vigorous specimens. 
Flowers are of a pecu- 
liar form, as shown in 
fig. 27. The outer 
petals round cvate, 
greenish - yellow at 
first, but changing to 
dark purple. Fruit 
banana-shaped or ob- 
long, three to four 
inches long, consist- 
ing of a sweetish 
pulp, containing sev- 
eral large flattish bony 
seeds. A very hand- 
some small tree, some- 
times thirty or more 
feet in hight. Wood 
rather light and spongy ; not valuable. The fruit might be 
greatly improved by cultivation, and new varieties produced as 
with other similar native fruits. Found sparingly in Western 
New York, more abundant westward to Iowa and southward 
to Florida. Eeadily propagated from seed or suckers, which 
usually spring up more or less abundantly from the roots. 

A. paryiflora. — Small-flowered Papaw. — A small shrub South, 
in dry soils. Leaves smaller and thicker than the last, and 
flower only a half inch broad. Fruit small, oblong, or pear- 
shaped. 

A. grandiflora. — Large-flowered Papaw. — Also a small shrub. 




Fig. 27.— FLOWEES or papaw. 



FOREST TREES. 



Ill 



South, with leaves only two to three inches long. Flowers 
with outer petals two inches long and yellowish- white. Fruit 
small, often containing only one seed. 

A. pygmsea. — Dwarf Papaw. — A small shrub. Georgia and 
Florida. Flowers small, appearing late in the spring or sum- 
mer from the axils of the leaves of the season. 

The Custard Apple of the West Indies {Anona glabra)^ may 
be mentioned here, as it is occasionally found in southern 
Florida, where it may have been introduced by the Indians, or 
escaped from some of the islands and washed ashore or seeds 
dropped by birds. It is a small tree, and only of value in a 
tropical climate. 

AYICEi^NIA. 

Low evergreen shrubs or trees, with long creeiDing roots, 
forming dense and almost impenetrable thickets in saline 
marshes along the sea-shore in tropical or semi-tropical climates. 
Two species are found in Florida and along the Gulf to west- 
ward. Only one of these, " The White Mangrove " {A, nitida, 
Jacq., H. ohlongifolia, Nutt.), reaches a hight of twenty feet, and 
this one very seldom ; consequently the genus is of no especial 
interest except to the botanist or residents of tropical countries. 

BETULA. — Birch. 

A widely distributed genus, containing many large-growing, 
useful and ornamental species of trees, the bark and wood of 
some highly aromatic. The twigs and younger branches are 
generally rather slender and very flexible, giving to the trees a 
very graceful habit, a characteristic of the entire genus, 
whether trees or shrubs. They thrive in a great variety of 
soil, but succeed best in one that is moist. The flowers are 
monoecious, that is, the sexes are produced separately, pistils in 
one and stamens in another, but both in scaly catkins on the 
same tree. Seeds small, nut-like, surrounded by a wing. They 
are propagated by seeds, which ripen in autumn, budding and 
grafting, and in the dwarf species by layers. Our indigenous 
species are as follows : 

Betnla alba. — ^Var. populifolia. — White Birch, Gray Birch. — 
Our native White Birch is now considered by botanists as only 
a variety of the European B. alba, hence the use of two botani- 
cal names as above. Leaves small, somewhat triangular and 
tapering, very smooth and glossy. Stem with chalky white 



112 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



paper-like bark, readily peeling horizontally in thin sheets. 
Wood very white, firm, close-grained, easily polished ; exten- 
sively used in the manufacture of spools, shoe-pegs, and other 
similar purposes. In Eussia the oil from White Birch is said to 
be used to give to Russia leather the peculiar aromatic and 
lasting qualities, and when dissolved in alcohol is said to be ex- 
cellent for preserving and water-proofing various fabrics. A 
small, rather slender tree thirty or more feet high, growing in 
poor, sandy, and gravelly soil, also in cold, moist soils near 
ponds, swamps, and along the banks of streams. Common al- 
most anywhere in the Northern States and Canadas, and also 
along the mountains southward. 

B. papyracea. — Paper or Canoe Birch. — Closely alhed to the 
White Birch, but a much larger tree. Leaves ovate or heart- 
shaped, dark-green on the upper side. The bark papery and 
readily separated into large sheets impervious to water, hence 
its extensive use by the Indians for making tents, baskets, 
canoes, and various domestic utensils. Wood white, compact, 
hard, making excellent fuel, and is also used for the same pur- 
poses as the White Birch. Extensively exported from the New 
England States and Canada. Common throughout British 
America, the Northern States, and westward to Dakota. 

B. lenta. — Black Bhch, Sweet Birch, Mahogany Birch, Cherry 
Birch. — Leaves oblong-ovate and somewhat heart-shaped, 
finely and doubly serrate. Bark dark-brown, close, not peeling 
readily ; very aromatic. Wood of a reddish color, fine grained, 
compact, excellent for cabinet work and fuel. A large tree 
fifty to sixty feet high, with stem two feet in diameter. 
Throughout the Northern States and Canadas, in moist soils, 
and southward to Georgia in the mountains, A valuable tree 
for planting in moist soils in cold climates. 

B. lutoa. — ^Yellow Birch, Gray Bhch. — Leaves of a dull green 
color, oblong-ovate, rarely heart-shaped. Bark less aromatic, 
and of a grayish color, separating in very thin layers. Wood 
similar to that of the Black Birch, but can be obtained of a 
larger size, for the Yellow Birch is said to be the largest decid- 
uous tree found north of the Great Lakes, growing seventy to 
eighty feet high, with a stem three to four feet in diameter. 
From Newfoundland to Dakota, Manitoba, and southward in 
the mountains of North Carolina. A valuable forest tree, and 
worthy of extensive cultivation in the Northern States. 



FOREST TREES. 



113 



B. nigra. — Black Birch, River Birch, Red Birch, — Leaves 
rhombic-ovate, whitish beneath, and the small twigs of a 
rusty color. A small slender tree along the banks of streams, 
from New England southward to Florida, and westward to 
Texas. More abundant South than in the North. 

B. occidentalis. — Western Birch. — Leaves thin, broadly-ovate, 
acute, abrupt, or somewhat rounded at the base, one to one-and- 
a-half inches long. Wings of seed very broad. Described by 
Watson in Botany of California as a small tree, ten to twenty 
feet high, in the eastern canyons of the Sierra Nevada at an alti- 
tude of from four thousand five hundred to ten thousand feet. 
Extensively employed for fuel and fencing. Found in Washing- 
ton Territory to the Saskatchewan, and southward in the Rocky 
Mountains to New Mexico. B. glandulosa, is a low shrub, in- 
habiting the same region as the last and farther north. 

There are also several cultivated varieties of our native species 
of Birch, the best known of which are the Cut-leaved {lacinia- 
tum), and the Weeping (pendula), these are propagated by 
grafting or budding on stocks of the more common kinds. Of 
foreign species there are quite a large number, but there are 
none among them in any way superior to our native species as* 
forest trees. 

BOURRERIA HAYANENSIS^ MierS. 

A small tree found on the Florida Keys and in the West 
Indies. It is one of those unfortunate plants that has more 
names than merits. It is the Ehretia Havanensis of Willde- 
now, and is described in Chapman's Flora of the Southern 
States under the name of Ehretia Bourreria, p. 329. This 
species may be found in botanical works under some seven 
or eight different names, and a variety (var. radiila), has five. 
It is of no special interest further than adding one to the num- 
ber of trees and shrubs indigenous to the United States. 

BUMELiAj Swartz. — Iroiiiuood, Biicldhorn, 

Spiny shrubs or small trees with very hard wood- Leaves 
deciduous. Flowers small, white or greenish- white in the axils 
of the leaves. Fruit an ovoid one-seeded berry, and edible. 

Bamelia teaax, Willd. — Lsaves broadly-lanceolate or spatu- 
late, one to three inches long. Flowers in clusters. A small 
tree, twenty to thirty feet high with divergent branches. 
North Carolina to Florida, in sandy soils. 



114 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



B. lanugmosa, Pers. — Leaves oblong-obovate. Flowers in 
clusters of six to eighteen. A tree sometimes forty feet high, 
and not so spiny as some of the species. Missouri and south- 
ward to Texas and eastward to Florida. A variety of this (B. 
macrocarpa, Nutt.), has leaves less than an inch long. Fruit 
edible, and quite large. 

B. lycioides, Gaertn. — Leaves quite smooth, obovate-oblong, 
two to five inches long, often wliitish imdemeath when young. 
A low shrub, but sometimes a tree twenty to thirty feet high. 
Illinois to Texas, and eastward to Florida. 

B. euneata, Swartz. — Leaves quite variable in form ; very 
long lanceolate or broadly obovate ; an inch to an inch-and-a- 
half long, very thick and fleshy. A small tree twenty to thirty 
feet high, but more commonly only a low shrub. Florida, 
West Indies, Texas, and Mexico. 

BURSE RA — West India Birch, 

Tropical American trees, yielding a transparent green rosin, 
readily dissolved in alcohol and occasionally used as a varnish. 
Only one species found in the United States and this is the 

Bursea gummifera, Jacquin. — Leaves unequally pinnate, three 
to five leaflets. Flowers small in axillary racemes. Fruit a 
drupe the size of a small hazelnut. Seed a small white nut, each 
containing one kernel. The Spanish name is Almicigo or 
Mastic Tree. A large tree in Southern Florida and in the West 
Indies. Wood soft and brittle. 

CALTPTRAXTHES, Swartz. 

A genus of small evergreen trees indigenous to the West 
Indies and Brazil. Flowers very minute but numerous, usually 
in axillary or terminal branching racemes. We have one 
species : 

Calyptranthes Chrytraenlia. — Forked Calyptranthes. — Leaves 
ovate or ovate-lanceolate, rather blunt-pointed, smooth above 
but pubescent beneath. Flowers whitish, minute. Berry dry, 
round ; one or two-seeded. Wood very hard, and in Jamaica 
considered an excellent timber, but the tree does not grow to a 
large size, and the stem is seldom more than a foot in diameter. 
Found at Key West, Florida, and in the West Indies. 

CARPixus. — Blue Beech, Water Beech, 

TaU shrub or smaU tree, widely distributed in North America, 
only one indigenous species. 



FOREST TREES. 



115 



Carpinns Americana of Michx. ; or C. caroliniana of Walt. — 

Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, doubly serrate, very smooth and 
thin, resembling those of the Common Beech (Fagus), Sterile 
flowers in rather dense catkins, and fertile ones in little 
slender, loose catkins, with a pair of three-lobed bractlets, one 
on each side of the small nut-like seed, which ripens late in the 
autumn. Shrubs and trees, from twenty to forty feet high, 
often a number of stems springing from the same root. Com- 
mon in swamps, and along the banks of streams from Nova 
Scotia, westward through the Canadas and Northern States, 
and southward along the AUeglianies to Georgia, and in the 
rich woods of Florida. Bark smooth and of a grayish color, 
stem often deeply furrowed. Wood very white, hard, close- 
grained and exceedingly tough. Extensively used by the early 
settlers of our Northern States for making brooms, as the wood 
is so tough that it is easily divided into very thin and narrow 
strips for the brush of the home-made broom. A blue-beech 
withe will last almost as long as iron wire, and an ox-gad made 
of a blue-beech sprout is nearly equal to a leather one. There 
may be many of my readers who have seen an armful of the 
same kind of implements of torture, brought into the country 
school-house and placed near the fire or drawn through the hot 
ashes on the hearth, to take the frost out and increase their 
flexibility and toughness of the rods, which were once con- 
sidered very important aids in preserving the discipline of a 
district school. There is one European and an oriental species 
of Carpinus, but neither are of any special value as timber 
trees. For another tree closely allied to the Carpinns botanic- 
ally, but otherwise very distinct, see Ostrya Virginica, 

c AR YA . — Hickory, 

The hickories are a very important genus of North American 
trees, supplying almost every branch of mechanics with very 
tough timber, and for fuel it has no superior. They are princi- 
pally trees of large size, with alternate, odd-pinnate leaves, 
which usually assume a golden hue in autumn. The flowers 
are monoecious, the fertile ones very minute, opening at the 
apex of the embryo nut, and the sterile or male ones in long, 
pendulous catkins. Seed, a nut enclosed in a thick or thin, 
four-valved epicarp or husk. All are readily propagated from 
the nuts, which should be stripped from their outer husk soon 
after they fall, and then buried in heaps, mixed with sand or 



116 



PRACTICAL FOEESTHY. 



soil, and left exposed to frosts during the winter, to be sown in 
drills in spring, or they may be planted in rows at the time of 
gathering. When jDlanted in seed-beds composed of rather 
light or sandy soil, the seedlings will produce a greater number 
of small, lateral roots than when the nuts are planted in heavy 
clay. The seedlings may be transplanted when one or two 
years old, and a jDortion of the tap root removed as directed in 
a previous chapter. When treated in this way, all the hickories 
are as readily and safely traDsplanted, as the chestnut and 
similar forest trees. Propagation by budding and grafting has 
not been veiy extensively or successfully practiced by om- 
nurserymen. By securing good, thrifty seedling stocks, and 
then grow them in pots for a year, or until they ai*e well 




Fig. 28— THICK SHELL-BAP.K Fi'J,'. 5^9. — CROSS SECTION OF XmCK 

HICKORY. SHELL-EAEK HICKORY. 



estabhshed, a fair degree of success may be obtained in grafting 
the hickory in propagating houses or in frames. In waiTQ 
chmates the propagation of nut-bearing trees of all kinds ap- 
pears to be attended with far greater success than in cold 
ones. Loudon in referring to the subject in Vol. III., Ai^borc- 
tum and Friiticehnn, p. 1431, says : ''Much has been written 
on the subject by French authors, from which it appears that 
in the north of France, and in cold countries generally, the 
walnut does not bud and graft easily by any mode ; but that in 
the south of France, and north of Italy, it may be budded or 
grafted by different modes with success." The same may be 



FOEEST TEEES. 



117 



said to be true in this country, and while both the hickories 
and the walnuts are not readily propagated by budding or 
grafting in the nursery at the North, they are in the South, 
as many correspondents have assured me. Varieties may, 
however, be multiplied, by exposing a portion of the roots of 
the large trees to the air and light, and from the exposed parts 
sprouts will appear, and when these are two or three feet high 
may be taken up and transplanted with a section of the parent 
root attached. 

Carya alba, Nutt. — Shell-bark or Shag-bark Hickory. — Leaflets 
five to seven, usually five, lanceolate oblong, the upper three 
much the largest. Fruit flat or depressed at top, nut white, 
roundish, or slightly four-angled, with a sharp point at the apex. 
Thin shelled, and kernel sweet and excellent. Nuts highly 
prized, and always in demand. Wood heavy, tough, and elastic, 
highly valued by the manufacturers of agricultural implements, 
carriages, etc., etc. A large tree, often eighty feet high, and 
stem two to three feet in diameter. Bark shaggy or scaly. 
This is not only a noble and valuable forest tree, but a superb 
ornamental tree, which deserves far more attention than has 
ever been given it. More or less abundant in all of our North- 
ern States and the Canadas, and westward to Nebraska. Also oc- 
casionally found as far south as the northern part of Georgia. 

C. snclata, Nutt. — Western Shell-bark and Thick Shell-bark 
Hickory. — Leaflets seven to nine, obovate-oblong, slightly 
downy beneath. Fruit very large, oval, somewhat four-angled 
above. Nut oblong, dull white or yellowish, with a point on both 
ends, as shown in figure 28, which is of the exact and an aver- 
age size of some nuts of this species I received from Ohio. The 
shell is also very thick, as shown in a cross section of the same 
nut, figure 29. The kernel, although small m proportion to the 
size of the nut, is sweet-tasted and good. A large tree, with 
a rough bark somewhat scaly. Wood heavy, tough, and excel- 
lent, but the heart-wood is more like that of the next species 
than that of the last. A more common tree west of the Alle- 
ghanies than east of them, but was formerly quite abundant in 
Western New York and southward through Pennsylvania to 
North Carolina. 

€. tomentosa, Nutt.— Mocker-nut, White-heart Hickory. -Leaflets 
seven to nine, mostly seven, large, oblong-ovate, sharp pointed, 
lower surface downy when young. Fruit large, round, usually 
with very thick, hard husk. An exceedingly variable species. 



118 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Kernels sometimes sweet and good, then again scarcely eatable. 
The "King nut," known in the Genesee Valley, N. Y., is said 
to belong to this species, although its shell is quite thin, and 
the kernel large and excellent. The wood of this species is as 
variable in quality as the nuts are, and while, as a rule, it is 
very white, heavy, and only moderately tough, I have cut trees 
that gave the straighest grained, and toughest hickory wood 
I ever handled. A very tall but slender tree, with a rough, 
deeply-furrowed bark on old trees, but does not split off in 
strips, as in the last two species. More common on high, dry 
ridges, than in low lands, plentiful in the sandstone regions of 
New Jersey and southward to Florida. Also in New England, 
Canada, and westward. 

C. olivseformis. — Pecan-nut. ---Leaflets thirteen to fifteen, oblong- 
lanceolate, taper-pointed. Fruit cylindical oblong, nut olive 

shaped, yellowish-brown, shell veiy 
thin, kernel sweet and delicious. The 
nuts are usually a little over an inch 
long, and quite regular m form ; but an 
occasional tree will produce much larger 
nuts or of the size shown in figure 30, 
which was made from a fair average 
number of these nuts received from a 
correspondent in Louisiana. 

The Pecan-nut tree gi*ows to a large 
size in the bottom lands along the rivers 
in the South and West. Wood similar 
to that of the Shell-bark Hickory, and 
very valuable. Southern Illinois is its 
Fig. 30.-PECAN NUT. iiorthern limits in its wild state, but it 
has been cultivated in more northern localities with rather in- 
differeut success. 

C. porcina, Nutt. — Pig-nut, Brown Hickory. — Leaflets five to 
seven, ovate-lanceolate, smooth. Fruit ovate, oblong, or pear- 
shaped, quite variable in size and form. Husk thin, opening at 
the top, often remaining on the thick shelled nut all winter. 
Kernel usually bitter, but sometimes pleasant flavored. A 
large tree, with smooth bark, common in the same regions as 
the White-heart Hickory, and the wood very similar. 

C* amara, Nutt. — Bitter-nut, Swamp Hickory. — Leaflets seven 
to eleven, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, slightly downy when 
young. Buds on the small, slender twigs, yellowish in winter, 




FOREST TREES. 



119 



resembling those of the butternut. Fruit globular, husk very- 
thin, nut yellowish, thin shelled. Kernel intensely bitter. 
Wood rather soft, white, but often quite tough. A small, slen- 
der tree of a graceful habit when allowed room for full develop- 
ment of its branches. Common in low, moist ground, from 
Canada to Florida, and westward to Texas. 

C. aquatica, Nutt. — Water Hickory. — Leaflets nine to eleven, 
oblong-lanceolate, pointed, smooth. Fruit roundish, four ribbed, 
husk thin, nut flattish, four angled with thin shell, and kernel 
very bitter. A small tree witii rough, somewhat furrowed 
bark. Wood similar to the last, and I may add a closely allied 
species, and perhaps only a southern variety of it. From North 
Carolina south and westward. 

C. myristicseformis. — Nutmeg Hickory. — Leaflets five, ovate- 
lanceolate, smooth, the terminal ones sessile. Fruit oval, 
rough ; nut of same form, pointed, shell hard, furrowed, re- 
sembling the nutmeg, hence its name. A small tree in the 
swamps and low grounds. South from South Carolina, west- 
ward to Louisiana. Carya microcarpa of Nuttall, is now con- 




Fig. 31. — PAPER-SHELL Fig. 32.— CROSS SECTION OF HALES' 
HICKORY. PAPER-SHELL HICKORY. 

sidered by some of our highest botanical authorities to be only 
a variety of the Shell-bark Hickory {Carya alba). 

There are hundreds of quite distinct varieties of the hickories 
to be found in our forests, and some of them are well worthy 
of preservation and propagation. But in our northern climate, 
budding and grafting the hickory is seldom successful, although 
several of my correspondents assure me that they find little 
more difficulty in grafting hickories than they do the apple or 



120 



PKACTICAL FORESTEY. 



pear, and in the open grounds and upon stocks of large size. 
The difference is probably duo to climate, for we certainly have 
as skillful propagators in our northern nurseries as there are to 
be found anywhere, but for some reason few have been success- 
ful in propagating the hickory by any of the well-known , 
methods of budding or grafting, either under glass or in the i 
open air. The cion will often unite and grow slowly for a ' 
season or two, and then die, the union appearing to be an im- 
perfect one. One of the most distinct and valuable varieties 
that has ever been brought to my notice is the * ' Hales' Pai3er 
Shell Hickory Nut." I first became acquainted with this variety 
some fifteen years ago, and the next season described it under 
the above name. It is a variety of the common Shell-bark 
Hickory, and the tree is now growing with several others of 
the same species, near the Saddle River, on the farm of Mr. 
Henry Hales, about two miles east of Ridgewood, Bergen Co., 
N. J. The tree is a large one, and produces a fair crop of nuts 
annually. This handsome variety is well represented in the 
accompanying illustration, figure 31, showing a side view, 
natural size, and figure 32 a cross section, showing thickness 
of the kernel, and the extreme thinness of the shell. The 
general appearance of this nut is quite similar to some of the 
varieties of the English walnut, the surface being broken up 
into small depressions, instead of angles and corrugations 
as usually seen in the large varieties of the shell-bai'ks. Of all 
who have attempted to propagate this fine, and I think I may 
say unique variety, by budding • and grafting, Mr. J. R. 

Trumpy, of Flushing, N. Y., is the only one 
who has thus far been successful, he having 
succeeded in making a little less than one hun- 
dred live. 

If the space at my disposal would admit of 
it, I should be pleased to refer to several other 
varieties that I have obtained from various 
parts of the country, but as it will not, I must 
Fi 3"" DEF satisfied with referring to one which in the 

ED HICKORY nut! ^^^^ ^ frcak of nature can scarcely be excel- 
led. This variety comes from Connecticut, 
where a very large tree of the Shell-bark Hickory annually pro- 
duces a good crop of excellent nuts of the form and size shown 
in figure 33, one lobe or side of each nut fails to fill out, the 
nuts otherwise being perfect. 




FOEEST TREES. 



121 



CASTAKOPSis. — California Cliestmtt or Cliinquapiny 
Golden-leaved Chestnut. 

A curious genus of trees found in Eastern Asia and adjacent 
islands. Botanically, the genus is intermediate between the 
true chestnuts and oaks, represented in this country by one 
species on the Pacific Coast. 

Castaiiopsis chrysopliylla, A. DC. — California Chestnut, Chinqua- 
pin. — Leaves evergreen, thick and leathery, oblong or lanceo- 
late, two to four inches long, pointed, with short petiole, green 
above, and densely scurfy beneath. Fruit with stout spines, 
one half to an inch long ; nut usually solitary, somewhat tri- 
angular, and shell firm and hard. A small tree from thirty to 
forty feet high, but in some situations only a small, low shrub. 
From Oregon to Monterey, and in the Sierra Nevada at an alti- 
tude of six thousand feet, will probably thrive in some of the 
Middle, and all of the Southern States. 

c AST AKE A. — CliestmU, 

A well-known genus containing a limited number of species, 
of which there are many varieties. The staminate (male) 
flowers are yellow, and produced in long, pendulous catkins, 
and the pistillate in a bell-shaped involucre, which, as it en- 
larges, becomes a globose, prickly fruit, enclosing one to three 
ovoid, brown nuts. In figure 34 is shown a bunch of chest- 
nut flowers, the long catkins being the staminate, and above 
these on a branching flower stem is shown four of the small 
embryo burs or fruit, the fertile flowers being situated on their 
apex. On this flower stem, and above the embryo fruit there 
are also staminate flowers only partly developed, while those 
below are in full bloom. If the female flowers open too late, 
or fail to be fertilized by the staminates in the large catkins, 
they are very certain to be b}- the later ones situated above 
them on the fruiting branches as shown. The species are as 
follows : 

Castanea vesca. — European Chestnut. — Leaves oblong-lanceo- 
lale, pointed, coarsely serrate, -smooth on both sides. Nuts 
large, two to three in each burr. The texture of the nuts are 
rather coarse, with very little sweetness, and to make them 
more palatable they are either roasted or boiled. The Euro- 
pean Chestnut has not as yet been very extensively planted in 
this coimtry, as it is not, as a rule, quite as hardy a tree as the 
6 



FOREST TREES. 



123 



native Chestnut, still by careful selections from the most hardy 
seedlings, and the propagation of these, we could no doubt 
secure very valuable varieties well adapted to a wide range of 
country. Several such promising varieties are now being prop- 
agated and promise to be acquisitions to our list of nut- 
bearing trees. One of the best and most promising of these 
varieties with which I am acquainted is call Numbo, and was 
selected from a large number of seedlings raised by Mr. Moon, 
of the Morrivsille Nursery, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, some 
thirty years ago. The original tree is now about forty feet 
high, and produces a large crop of nuts every year. This vari- 
ety is now being disseminated, and if successful others will no 
doubt follow. The European varieties appear to succeed better 
when worked on our native stocks than on their own roots. 

C. yesca (var. Americana), — American Sweet Chestnut. — 
Leaves more acute at the base, and not usually as large or as 
thick. Nuts smaller, more delicate, shell thinner, and kernel 
much finer grain, and sweeter than the European. The nuts 
are in great demand in the fall and early winter, but are so 
delicate that they soon wither up if kept in a dry place, and 
become mouldly if kept in a moist and warm one,but those who 
may wish to extend the season for these nuts, may readily do 
so by mixing them with clean, moist sand, which if buried in 
some dry place in the open ground, where they will be kept 
cool, and neither too dry or too wet, may be preserved in good 
condition a long time. If put in small boxes a supply of fresh 
chestnuts may be kept up from fall to late in spring. I have 
practised this method of preserving chestnuts for many years, 
and have never failed to carry them through the winter in a 
sound condition, and in spring they were in good order for 
eating or planting. It is not necessary to bury the boxes con- 
taining the nuts below the reach of frost, but merely so deep 
that they will not be effected by every change in the weather. 
The wormy and imperfect nuts will of course decay, and it is 
a good plan to keep the nuts for a few weeks after gathering, 
and then carefully select the good ones before putting away in 
Gand. The chestnut is one of our most valuable forest trees, 
growing to an immense size in favorable situations. The wood 
is rather coarse-grained, only moderately tough, but strong and 
durable. It is of a light-yellowish or brown color, and is much 
used for fence rails, posts, stakes, railway ties, also for beams, 
joists, and other parts of buildings, although it is very liable to 



134 



PRACTICAL rOEESTRY. 



warp when seasoning, and for this reason is objectional for 
either hewn or sawed timber, to be used in the frames of 
buildings. It is extensively employed in the manufacture of 
furniture, and inside finishing of dwellings and other buildings, 
but must be very thoroughly seasoned before used. It makes 
very poor fuel, not worth half as much as hickory, as it burns 
slow, snaps disagreeably, and throws out little heat. The 
wood of old trees is quite durable when used for railway ties 
and fence posts, but the young trees of from six to twelve 
inches in diameter will seldom last more than eight or ten 
years, unless charred or coated with coal tar, or some similar 
wood preservative. I have used many hundred of chestnut 
fence posts of from five to ten inches in diameter, and must say 
that this rapid decay, even in very dry soils, has somewhat sur- 
prised me, inasmuch as the chestnut is so frequently recom- 
mended for such purposes on account of its great durability. 
This tree, however, is well worthy of extended cultivation 
wherever the climate and soil will admit of it, for it is of ex- 
ceedingly rapid growth and may be transplanted as success- 
fully as almost any of our cultivated fruit or forest trees. It 
is said to avoid hmestone regions, and stiff, clayey soils, but 
is at home on slaty or granite ridges, and in sandy soils, 
whether high or low. On the red sandstone ridges of New 
Jersey and southward, the Chestnut trees are abundant, and 
reach a large size. The nuts are quite variable in size and 
form, and there are occasional natural varieties that are almost 
equal in size to the European chestnut. These should be 
selected in preference to the smaller ones, by those who desire 
to raise trees for producing nuts. 

The Chestnut is found in Southern Maine, west to Michigan, 
and southwest to Arkansas. Also in all of the Eastern States 
and south to Florida. 

C. pumila. — Dwarf Chestnut, Chinquapin. — Lance-oblong 
leaves, downy beneath. Nuts small, round, solitary, or only one 
in each burr, very sweet and fine grained. A handsome little 
tree, with a roundish head, thirty to forty feet high, growing 
on sandy ridges, from Pennsylvania and Southern Ohio, south- 
ward to the Gulf of Mexico. Hardy in Northern New Jersey, 
and about New York City where an occasional tree planted a 
half century ago is seen. By grafting the Chinquapin on stocks 
of the common Chestnut, the growth will be greatly improved, 
and the trees will come into bearing much earlier than when 



FOEEST TREES. 



125 



raised from seed. Wood very similar to the common Cliest- 
nut, but the small branches and twigs are tougher. 

The Chinese and Japanese Chestnuts are probably varieties of 
the European species (C vesca), and the one recently introduced 
under the name of Castanea Japonica is a handsome little tree, 
coming into bearing when quite young, is very prolific, and 
the nuts are quite large. The tree, so far as it has been tested, 
appears to be as hardy as the common Chestnut. Only a few 
specimens have as yet fruited in this country, consequently, I 
can say little more of it than that it promises to be an acquisition. 
There are also quite a number of ornamental varieties in culti- 
vation, one of the best known of these is the Cut-leaved (var. 
laciniata\ a handsome tree with the margin of the leaves finely 
cut or divided. 

CATALPA. — Lidian Bean Tree, 

Shrubs or trees with large, simple leaves, branches rather 
coarse and stiff. Flowers bell-shaped, appearing late in spring. 
Seed flat with fringed wings, produced in long, slender pods. 
All the species readily propagated by seeds, layers and cuttings 
of the ripe wood. 

Catalpa bigaonioides, Walt. — Common Catalpa. — ^Leaves large, 
heart-shaped, pointed, downy beneath. Flowers tubular, bell- 
shaped, somewhat five-lobed, an inch long, white, flecked on the 
inside with yellow and purple ; appearing late in spring in large, 
open, terminal panicles as shown in figure 85. Seed-pods very 
long, a foot or more. Seeds flat with narrow or broad fringed 
wings. A small or large tree, according to soil and location, 
with very coarse, stubby, cane-like shoots and branches, usually 
a round-headed tree when given room, but when growing in 
forests the Catalpa assumes an erect and sturdy habit, growing 
to a hight of sixty or more feet, with stem two to four feet in 
diameter. Wood light, only about one half the weight of 
common hickory, but close-grained and susceptible of a fine 
polish, very durable and valuable for fence posts, railroad ties, 
and all similar purposes. A rapid growing tree, especially 
when young. As a shade tree it has been extensively planted 
in our Eastern States, and on dry, well-drained soils it is quite 
hardy in localities where the temperature of winter does not 
go more than twenty degrees below zero, although I have 
known it to withstand twenty-seven degrees below in my 
neighborhood without injury, even when many of the native 




Fig. 85.— CATALPA FLOWERS, (oDG- third natural size.) 



FOREST TREES. 



127 



red cedars suffered severely, and thousands were killed. Seeds 
and plants of the Catalpa tree of our Eastern States were sent 
to Europe very early (1726), and Loudon in 1838 refers to a large' 
number of specimens growing in Great Britian and various 
countries of Europe, giving their size at that time, but the 
variation in this respect is fully as great as seen here in iis 
native country. One tree planted at Fulham Palace one hun- 
dred and fifty years, was only twenty-five feet high, while an- 
other growing in sandy loam at Kenwood, forty years planted, 
was 40 feet high with a stem nearly eighteen inches in diameter, 
while another at Croome, in Worcestershire, of the same age was 
sixty feet high. In France there are many trees of much larger 
size, and one at the time named, in the Botanical Garden of 
Avranches, twenty-nine years planted, had reached a hight of 
eighty-nine feet, with a stem twenty inches in diameter. I 
refer to these trees not as unusually large, but merely because 
most American authors refer to the Catalpa as a small tree, 
and Humphry Marshall in "The American Grove," 1785, 
p. 21, says the Catalpa tree " rises to the hight of about twelve 
to fifteen feet," or about the size of a good three-year-old 
specimen. The young plants usually make a late growth in 
the fall, especially if planted in a rich, moist soil, and the soft, 
unripened wood will be frequently killed, even in localities 
where the trees after becoming well established will seldom 
or never be injured by cold. A handsome ornamental tree, 
but the branches are liable to be broken out or split off from 
the main stems when the trees are planted in exposed situa- 
tions. 

Frank J. Scott, in his superb work '^Suburban Home 
Grounds," in speaking of the Catalpa very truthfully says : 

Though planted largely in the Northern States, and consid- 
ered hardy, its beauty would be more uniform, and we should 
of tener see fine specimens if, when first planted, it were regarded 
as half hardy, and cared for accordingly." This tree is a native 
of Virginia, southward to Florida, and westward to Louisiana. 
The Catalpa is also found wild in Southern Indiana, Kentucky, 
Illinois, and Missouri, where in the rich bottom lands it grows 
to a larger size than in the South and Eastern States, but 
recently it has been claimed that the Catalpas found in these 
Western States are of a different variety or species, and the 
late Dr. J. H. Warder, of Ohio, gave to this western form the 
name of Catalpa speciosa. The late E. E. Barney, of Dayton, 



128 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Ohio, collected many interesting facts in relation to the value 
of the Western Catalpa, which were given to the public in a 
pamphlet published in 1879. The question as to whether the 
Catalpa as found growing in the Western States is a distinct 
species from the one found in our Eastern and Southern, is one 
that can well be left to scientists to decide. My first acquain- 
tance with the Catalpa was in Illinois, some thirty odd years 
ago, and I have since seen it in all its perfection in Kentucky 
and Missouri, and in those States it is certainly a grand forest 
tree, and is no doubt well worthy of extended cultivation 
where it will thrive as well as in its native forests. The prin- 
cipal points of difference claimed for their so-called Western 
Catalpa, is a more erect habit of growth, larger flowers, which 
appear from one to three weeks earlier in the spring. Seeds 
also larger and with broader wings, and lastly the trees are 
more hardy than the species, or the older and better known 
Eastern Catalpa. 

C. Ksempferi. — Japan Catalpa. — A small tree resembling our 
native Catalpa, with ovate, heart-shaped leaves, abruptly 
pointed, sometimes three-lobed. Flowers smaller than the 
American, spotted with purple. Pods and seeds smaller than 
our Catalpa, and fully as hardy. 

C. Bnngei. — A species from Northern China, growing four or 
five feet high, with handsome, dark-green leaves. Cluster of 
flowers are said to be a foot long. I have had this species 
growing in my grounds for many years, but it has never 
bloomed, although it is apparently quite hardy. 

€. bignonioides, (var. aurea). — This is a handsome, golden-leaved 
variety of our native Catalpa, and a handsome ornamental 
tree, which with me has never been injured by the frosts of 
winter. 

CEAKOTHUS, Linn. 

A genus of some twenty-five indigenous species, all except 
two are low shrubs of no special value except for ornamental 
purposes, although one of the species (C. Americanus), indige- 
nous to the Atlantic States has figured somewhat conspicuously 
in our domestic history under the name of New Jersey Tea, as 
the leaves were in early times used as a substitute for genuine 
tea. All handsome little shrubs or trees with small, white or 
blue flowers, in long, branching clusters. Four species are 
found in the Eastern States, the others belong to the Eocky 



FOREST TKEESo 



129 



Mountain regions, and west to the Pacific. Among the latter 
there are two which may be placed in the list as trees. 

Ceonothus spinosuSj Nutt. — Red- wood. — Leaves thick, rather 
rough on surface, entire, oblong, on slender stalks. Small twigs 
somewhat spiny. Flowers blue and very fragrant. Fruit a 
small drupe coated with rosin. A small tree, sometimes thirty 
feet high in the Coast Ranges of Southern California, where it 
is known as Red- wood," from the color of the wood. 

C. thyrsiflorus, Esch. — California Lilac— Leaves thick, ob- 
long, smooth, and shiny above, somewhat downy beneath. 
Flowers bright blue in large, showy, compound racemes, re- 
sembling very much the flowers of the common lilac of our 
gardens. A tall shrub, sometimes reaching a hight of twenty 
feet in the Coast Ranges, from Monterey to Humboldt County, 
Cal. 

CELTis. — HaMerry, Nettle-tree, 

A genus of the Nettle Family, clor^ely allied to the Elm, but 
fruit a small berry-like drupe, containing only one seed. Flowers 
perfect or polygamous, one-petioled, singly or only a few in a 
cluster of a greenish color. We have some four or five species, 
and several natural or local varieties. 

Celtis breyipes, Watson. — Leaves slightly pubescent, obliquely, 
ovate-oblong, pointed, an inch and a half long. Fruit about a 
quarter of an inch long, black. A small tree twenty or thirty 
feet high, and stem a foot or more in diameter. Wood soft, 
tough, but of little value. South-eastern Arizona. 

C. Mississippiensis, Bosc. — Southern Nettle Tree. — Young leaves 
and twigs silky ; le.aves two inches long, long-ovate, pointed, 
sharply serrate, abruptly contracted at base ; soon becoming 
rusty beneath. Fruit dark purple, of the size shown in figure 
36, with sweet pulp, greedily eaten by several species of birds. 
A very large tree in the Mississippi Valley, from Kentucky 
southward, differing very slightly from the next. 

C. occidentalis. — American Hackberry, Nettle-tree, Sugar-berry, 
False Elm, etc., etc. — Very similar to the last, and by some au- 
thors considered a distinct species, and by others only a north- 
ern variety. Wood soft, but difficult to split. A small tree in 
Vermont, and sparingly westward to Nebraska and southward, 
also along the Atlantic Coast in New Jersey, Long Island and 
southward to Florida. A rather pretty tree, seldom infested by 



130 



PRACTICAL POEESTRT. 




Fig, 36.— SOUTHERN NETTLE TREE. 



FOKEST TEEES. 



131 



insects, and the sweet fruit attracts birds in autumn. Leaves 
hang on late, but all drop at once when cut by frost. 

Celtis Tala, Gillies— var. pallida, Planch.— A Mexican species, 
found in a few localities within the United States, Southern 
Florida (Garber), in the lower Rio Grande, and westward 
through Southern New Mexico (Botany, Mexican Boundary Sur- 
vey.) A tree sometimes twenty feet high, Celtis reticulata of 
Torrey, may prove to be a distinct species, but the genus is a 
difficult one, and the species not readily defined, as thej* are 
quite variable ; and there are many varieties. There are also 
two or more species and several varieties found in China and 
Japan. 

CERCis, Linn. — Red- Bud, Judas- Tree. 

A genus of four species, one in Europe, one in Asia, one in 
the Atlantic States, and one in California, and eastward. Small 
trees, with smooth, heart-shaped leaves, and pea-shaped flow- 
ers, appearing early in spring, before the leaves. Seeds in 
small, pea-shaped pods. 

Cercis Canadensis.— Red-Bud.— Leaves broadly heart-shaped, 
dark green, smooth, and glossy. Flowers reddish-purple, in 
sessile clusters, nearly covering the smaller branches in spring, 
before the leaves appear. A very handsome little tree, with 
smooth bark. In favorable situations it grows to twenty or 
thirty feet high. Wood hard and compact, resembling that of 
the apple tree, in New York, southward to Florida, and west- 
ward to Wyoming, in rich soils. 

C. occidentals. — Western, or California Red-Bud. — Leaves 
smaller than those of the Eastern species, and only about two 
inches broad ; round heart-shape. Flowers rose color, and seed 
pods about two inches long, sharp-pointed at both ends. Cali- 
fornia, Mexico, and eastward to Texas. 

€. siliqnastrnm. — European Judas-Tree. — Leaves somewhat 
kidney-shaped. Flowers larger than in our native species, but 
seldom produced in such abundance ; a little darker in color. 
There are varieties with white flowers, and one with pale rose- 
colored flowers. A tree growing twenty feet high, a native of 
Southern Europe. Only occasionally hardy in our more North- 
ern States, and the flower buds, which in aU the species are 
formed in the autumn, are frequently killed by the severe cold 
of winter. 



132 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



C. Japonica. — Japan Judas-Tree. — Leaves largest of all, 
broadly heart-shape, dark rich green, smooth. Flowers larger 
than those of our indigenous species, and produced in great 
abundance, even from spurs on the old stems and branches. A 
low, much-branched shrub, six to ten feet high. Seed occa- 
sionally ripening in this coimtry, but flower buds often killed in 
severe winters at the North. When this shrub was first intro- 
duced into Europe, or the United States, I have been unable to 
ascertain, but it must have found its way to America at a much 
earlier date than is usually given by our nurserymen, for in 
1856, there was a large plant, eight feet high, and with many 
stems in the old Prince nursery, at Flushing, N. Y. This plant 
could not have been less than ten years old at that time, which 
would carry the date of introduction back to 1846, or nearly 
forty years ago. I obtained layered plants from this old stock 
in 1858, and have had it in my garden ever since. Layers of 
the smaller branches root very readily, and usually the first 
season they are put down. All the species may be propagated 
in the same manner, or from seeds, where they can be obtained. 

Cerasus. — (Cherry).— See Prunus, 

CHiLOPSis, Don. — Desert Willoiu, 

A genus represented by only one species in the United States. 
It is closely aUied to the Catalpa-tree, and our common Trumpet 
Creeper {Tecoma radicans). A large order in the tropics, but 
has few representatives in the temperate zone. 

Chilopsis saligaa, Don. —Texas Flowering Willow, Desert Willow. 
— Leaves long, narrow, or linear-lanceolate, four to six inches 
long, opposite in whorls or irregularly alternate, entire and 
slightly sticky when old. Flowers funnel-form, one to two 
inches long, white and purplish, in short, terminal racemes. 
A small but handsome tree, twenty feet high. In Southern 
Texas, in Mexico, and Southern California. Probably not hardy 
anywhere in our Northern States, but a valuable ornamental 
shrub or tree for the South. P. J. Berckmans, of the Fruit- 
land Nurseries, Augusta, Ga., writes me that it grows freely 
from cuttings, making plants five or six feet high the first 
season. 

CHiONANTHUS. — White Fringe Tree, 

A genus closely related to the common ash (Fraxinus). Only 
one species, and this muchadmired for its long, loose panicles of 



FOEEST TEEES. 



133 



snow-white flowers, resembling cut paper. Appearing late in 
spring. 

Chionantlius Yirginiea. — ^White Fringe. — Leaves entire, oval or 
obovate, three to five inches long, the lower surface sometimes 
rather downy. The long, slender petals of the flower an inch 
long. Fruit, a single-seeded drupe, purple, with bloom. There 
is a variety of the White Fringe Tree, formerly known in nur- 
series as C, var. angustifolia. Leaves long and narrow, and 
flowers usually larger and more abundant. Of late years this 
variety appears to be scarce in nurseries, and is seldom mentioned 
in catalogues. I do not now call to mind but one specimen of 
this variety, and this is or was a few years ago growing in the 
grounds of Mr. Charles Downing, Newburgh, N. Y. There may 
be others scattered about the country, and it is well worthy of 
preseiwation. The Wliite Fringe is a large shrub, growing 
twenty to thirty feet high in the South. It may be budded or 
grafted upon the ash, and when worked on such stocks, grow 
faster and make better shax)ed trees than when growing on 
their own roots. Native of Southern Ohio, Pennsylvania, and 
thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 

CHEYSOPHYLLUM, Linn. — star Ajjple, 

Handsome trees of tropical regions, usually with leaves bright 
green above, and of a bright golden or coffee-color beneath. 
Fruit fleshy, and of most species edible. Two specie^, are found 
within the United States, on the southern border, viz. : C. mi- 
crophyUum, DC, in Southern Florida, where it has probably 
been introduced from the West Indies, C. Oliviforme, Lam., in 
same localities, fruit black when ripe, scarcely edible. Both 
small trees of no value outside of the tropical climates. 

CLADEASTTS, Eaf. — Tellolu Wood, 

Trees with white, pea-shaped flowers in long drooping 
racemes, succeeded by small, flat pods, containing a number of 
small, brown seeds. Only one indigenous species. 

Cladrastis tinctoria, {Virgilia lutea of Michaux). — Leaflets seven 
to eleven, oval or ovate, three to four inches long. Flowers 
white, fragrant, an inch long, in large, drooping panicles, late 
in spring. Bark smooth, of a grayish-color. One of our clean- 
est and most beautiful forest trees, usually with an open, rather 
wide spreading head. Wood light yellow, veiy firm and hard, 
makes excellent fuel, and is desirable for all kinds of mechani- 



134 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



cal pm poses, where a fine, hard wood is requu-ed. The roots 
are almost as tough and strong as a hempen rope, and it 
requires a shai*p spade to cut them in transplanting. I am 
reminded of this characteristic of the roots, from the fact that 
about twenty-five years ago I sent to Kentucky, where this 
tree is most abundant, and secured two pounds of the seed, 
from which I raised several thousand trees. After transplant- 
ing them once or twice, and they had reached a hight of 
three or four feet, I offered them free to my neighbors, any one 
who would accept and take up few or many ; but as very 
few persons were acquainted with the trees, I only succeeded in 
distributing a small number, and the remainder were dug up 
and burned. One of this lot is now growing on my lawn, and it 
is a noble specimen, and not excelled by any tree in my grounds. 
When planted in a forest, it will grow tall and straight. It 
deserves to be far better known and more extensively cultivated 
than it has been. Native of Kentucky and Tennessee, but not 
abundant. 

C. amurensis, Bentham and Hooker. — This is an Oriental spe- 
cies, which has been introduced into this country, and is a free 
grower and quite hardy. 

CLiFTOXiA^ Banks. — BucTcivheat Tree, 

A small tree or shrub, the Mylocarpum, of Willdenow. Only 
one species, the 

Cliftonia ligustrina. -Buck wheat Tree. — Leaves evergreen, oblong, 
smooth, and somewhat glaucous. Flowers white, fragrant, in 
racemes two to four inches long, appearing in March and April. 
A tree sometimes twenty feet high, along the borders of 
streams in Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. Propagated from 
seed, layers, or green cuttings, in a propagating house. 

CLUSiA. — Balsam Tree, 

A genus of tropical trees or shrubs with resinous yellow 
juice and rough evergreen opposite leaves. Fruit of some of 
the species edible, only one native of the United States. 

Clttsia flaya, Linn. — Balsam Tree. — Leaves with short stalks 
obovate, finely veined. Flowers polygamous, single, or in threes, 
on short axillary or terminal peduncles, yellow. Fruit pear- 
shaped, containing about a dozen seeds, imbedded in a soft 
pulp. A small tree about thirty feet high in Southern Florida, 
and the West Indies. 



FOREST TREES. 



135 



ooccoLOBA, Jacq. — Pigeon Berry. 

The species of this genus are principally large evergreen 
trees, a few only large shrubs, mainly native of the West 
Indies, but a few extending into South America. All have 
greenish flowers in axillary and terminal racemes. Over 
twenty species are described in botanical works, two are found 
in Southern Florida. 

Coccoloba Floridaiia, Meisner. — Pigeon Plum. — Leaves smooth, 
elliptical, obtuse at each end ; two to three inches long. Flowers 
in slender racemes, either terminal or on short lateral branches. 
Fruit a- rather pleasant flavored berry. A tree about forty feet 
high, with hard, firm wood. In rocky situations in the West 
Indies, and at Key West in Florida. 

C. nnifcra, Jacq. — Sea-side Grape. — Leaves smooth, with 
short stem ; roundish heart-shaped. Flowers in terminal erect 
racemes, sometimes a foot long. Bark on branches smooth, 
but on the stems becomes rough and furrowed. Fruit in 
long clusters, the size of large cherries, but pear-shaped, pur- 
ple when ripe, with thin pulp of a sub-acid taste. Often referred 
to by travellers and residents of Florida as an excellent dessert 
fruit. A large tree, forty to sixty feet high, and stem two or 
more feet in diameter. Wood heavy and hard, violet-colored, 
highly valued for cabinet work. An astringent extract of the 
wood known under the name of Kino, is sometimes used as a 
medicine. Southern Florida and the West Indies. In the 
Bahamas it is called the Mangrove Grape Tree. 

CONDALTA, Gavan. — Blueiooocl, Logtoood. 

A genus of three species, one in South America, and two in 
the United States. Small evergreen shrubs, but one, the Con- 
dalia ohovata, sometimes a small tree in Eastern Texas and 
westward to Arizona. Closely allied and resembles the com- 
mon Buckthorn, Rhammis Caroliniana. Wood heavy, but too 
small to be of much value. 

CONOCARPUS, Linn. 

A small genus of evergreen tropical shrubs, the bark of some 
of the species being employed in tanning. The fruit resembles 
a pine cone in form. We have one native species. 

Conocarpus crectaj Jacq. — Button Tree. — Leaves smooth, oblong 
or lanceolate-pointed. Flowers on short, spreading pedicels. 



136 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Fruit in an ovoid imbricated cone. A small tree fiom Tampa, 
Florida, southward to Brazil, in sandy soils. 

CORDIA^ Li an, Plumier. 

Sub-tropical or tropical trees, and shrubs of the East and 
West Indies, and other warm climates. Highly valued as orna- 
mental trees. The greater portion of the species are American. 
Two of the four found in the United States reach a hight of 
twenty or more feet. 

Cordia Borissicri, A. DC. Leaves oval, or oblong-ovate, soft, 
woolly, but becoming smooth or rugose when old. Flowers 
white, with yellow center ; five-lobed, and rather downy on 
outside. Two to four one-celled hard seeds, enclosed in a 
small, pulpy fruit. A small tree, twenty feet high, along the 
southern border of Texas and New Mexico, and westward. 

C. Scbestena, Linn. — Eough-leaved Cordia. — Leaves large, 
four to eight inches long, ovate-oblong, rough to the touch. 
Flowers arc deep yellow-orange, in large, terminal corymbose 
racemes. Fruit is a round, or pear-shaped drupe, containing a 
deeply furrowed nut. A handsome, ornamental tree in South 
Florida, and the West Indies. The botanist, Catesby, states 
that the wood of this species is of a dark brown, approaching to 
black ; very heavy, and containing a gum, in smell and appear- 
ance resembhng that of Aloes. In the Bahama Islands is called 
Lignum Aloes (Nuttall's North American Sylva, Vol. II. p. 146.) 

CORKUS, Tour. — Dogivoocl. 

A large genus, principally shrubs and small trees, a few per- 
ennial herbs, mostly of the northern hemisphere ; one in South 
America. Fifteen of the twenty-five species, known to botan- 
ists, are indigenous to the United States, but only two reach 
the hight of twenty feet or more. Flowers perfect, small, in 
compact clusters or heads, usually quite inconspicuous, but in 
some species they are enclosed at first in a corolla-like involucre, 
which, upon expanding, is very showy. This flower-like envelop 
is usually referred to as the flower of the common Dogwood of 
this country. 

Cornus florida, Linn. — Flowering Dogwood. — Leaves ovate, 
pointed, smooth on both sides. Flowers small, greeilish-white, 
enclosed in a large four-leaved, white involucre, sometimes 
tinged with red. Fruit an oval, bright red drupe, with an 
agreeable tasted pulp, much sought by several species of birds. 



FOREST TREES. 



137 



The flowers appear in spring, before the leaves, making this 
tree one of the most strikingly beautiful to be found in our 
forests. If it was not so common, it would be more highly 
prized and more extensively jDlanted as an ornamental tree than 
any tree ever introduced from abroad. Wood very hard and 
close-grained, and on this account often called American box- 
wood ; valuable for the handles of small mechanical imple- 
ments. A tree somefcimes forty feet high, with broad, roundish 
head, and a stem nearly or quite one foot in diameter. Common 
on high, dry ground, from Canada to Florida, and westward to 
Texas. A handsome weeping variety of this species which has 
been named (7. florida pendtda, was found near Warren, Balti- 
more County, Md., by Dr. W. S. Thompson, who sold it to 
Thos. Meehan, of the Germantown Nurseries, who, after propa- 
gating it for a few years, sold the entire stock to a gentleman 
in Rochester, IST. Y., from whom it passed into the hands of 
Pratt Brothers, of the same city. This is a beautiful weeping 
tree, with flowers of the same size and color as the species. 

C. Nuttaili, Audubon. — Nuttall's DcJgwood. — Leaves more or 
less pubescent obovate, three to five inches long, pointed at 
both ends ; involucre of from four to six oblong bracts, some- 
times three inches long, yellowish or pure white, often tinged 
with red. Flowers numerous in large heads. Fruit a little lar- 
ger than in the last, of a bright crimson color. This species 
resembles the eastern dogwood very closely, and may be only 
a western variety. A small tree in some localities, in others 
fifty to seventy feet high. Wood same as that of C. florida. On 
the Pacific Coast, from Monterey, Cal., northward to the Fra- 
ser River. Four other species are found in the Rocky 
Mountains and on the Pacific Slope, viz.: C, sessilis, Torr. O. 
Calif ornica, Meyer. C, pubcscens, Nutt. C. glabrata, Benth., and 
C, Torreyt, Watson, all shrubs, from five to fifteen feet high. Of 
the Eastern species of the Comus, there are about a half dozen 
different species, all low shrubs, except one, and this is a small 
herbaceous plant. Of European species, none grow large 
enough to be classed as trees, and only one or two are cultivated 
for ornament or other uses. The Cornelian Cherry, Comus mas- 
eida, is a large shrub, bearing yellow fiowers in spring, succeeded 
by handsome oblong fruit, of a bright red color, edible, and 
sometimes used as a substitute for olives. 

The Turks value the fruit highly for flavoring sherbet, and 
it is considered useful in dysentery. There is a variety with 



138 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



bright yellow fruit, of the same size and flavor as the red. 
Both grow and fruit freely in our Northern States. Another 
variety has variegated leaves. The above and many other 
varieties and species are cultivated in nurseries, descriptions of 
which can be found in nurserymen's catalogues. 

c R AT G US . — Ha will 0 r n, 

A genus of small trees or shrubs, about a dozen species indi- 
genous to the United States, all bearing small, white flowers in 
spring and early summer. Wood hard, resembling that of the 
common apple tree, but seldom large enough to be serviceable, 
except for handles for small tools and similar purposes. The 
early settlers in our Eastern States thought they had found in 
our native hawthorns a plant equal, or superior to the English 
hawthorn for hedges, and while they are in every respect 
equal if not superior to the exotic species for such purposes, 
they have so many insect enemies in this country, that hedges 
made of them are liable to be destroyed before or soon after 
reaching a useful size. The common apple tree borers attack 
the hawthorns, and when set in close hedges the destruction of 
these insects, hidden as they are, in the stems and branches, is 
imx3racticable, if not entirely impossible. For this reason, and 
this only, the hawthorns are not to be recommended for hedges, 
especially in our Northern States, where several different species 
of what are commonly termed apple-tree borers abound. The 
hawthorns are mostly thorny, with simple or lobed leaves. A 
few of the species are evergreens. Seeds of the hawthorns are 
very hard, and do not usually germinate until the second sea- 
son after planting. The best way to manage these seeds is to 
mix them in sand or soil, after the pulp is removed, and then 
bury them on the north side of some building, or in a shady 
place, and leave them undisturbed until the opening of the 
second year after gathering, then take out and sow in drills. 
The seed should not be allowed to get very dry before being put 
into the sand. 

Cratsegns aestivalis, Torr. and Gray.— Summer Hawthorn.— Leaves 
spatulate or wedge-obovate, somewhat rough, crenate above 
the middle. Flowers solitary, or only three to five in a cluster. 
Fruit large, round, red, of a mild acid flavor. Ripe in summer. 
A small tree, but sometimes more than thirty feet high. From 
Virginia southward in the pine-barrens, and along the margin 
of streams and ponds. 



FOEEST TREES. 



139 



C. apiifoliaj Michx. — Parsley-leaved Thorn. — Leaves and young 
branches white, pubescent or downy, when young ; leaves 
small, divided into five to seven lobes, sharply toothed. Fruit 
round, red when ripe, and edible. A small tree in moist soils, 
from Virginia southward. 

C. arborescens, Elliott. — Tall Hawthorn. — Leaves smooth, thin, 
oval or elliptical, sharp at both ends, and finely serrate. Flow- 
ers abundant in large clusters. Fruit ovoid, red. Branches 
with a few large stout thorns. Small tree, sometimes thirty feet 
high. Georgia, Florida, and west to Texas. 

C. berberifolia, Torr. and Gray. — Barberry-leaved Hawthorn. — 
A doubtful species, about which little is known, although 
mentioned in several botanical works. Said to be found in 
Louisiana, and grows thirty feet high. 

C. coccinea, L. — Scarlet-fruited Thorn. — Leaves bright green, 
smooth, thin, roundish-ovate, deeply cut or lobed, on slender 
petioles. Flowers large, in large clusters. Fruit small, round, 
or pear-shaped, bright red, scarcely eatable. A variable species 
of which several varieties are mentioned in botanical works. A 
small tree, seldom over twenty feet high. Common in Canada 
and nearly all of our Northern States, and southward to Florida. 

€. cordata; Ait. — Washington Thorn. — Leaves large, thin, 
bright green, broadly heart-shaped, sometimes almost triangu- 
lar, often three to five-cleft or lobed. Thorns numerous, but 
slender. Fruit small, round, not larger than a good-sized pea, 
red. A small tree, formerly highly recommended for hedges. 
Virginia, Kentucky, and southward. 

C. Crus-galli, L. — Cock-spur Thorn. — Leaves smooth, thick, 
oblong-ovate, finely serrate above the middle, narrowed at the 
base into a slender petiole. Flowers large and numerous. 
Fruit large, bright red. Thorns numerous, and very long and 
sharp. There are many natural or wild varieties. A tree fifteen 
to twenty-five feet high, in both Northern and Southern States, 
and westward beyond the Mississippi. 

C. Douglassia, Lindley. — Douglass Thorn. — Leaves broadly- 
ovate, usually somewhat lobed or cut above, and rather finely 
serrate, one to three inches long, with short stem. Flowers 
large and numerous. Fruit a half inch in diameter, dark pur- 
ple, sweet and edible. A small tree in California, and north- 
ward to Puget Sound, along streams. 

C. flava. Ait. — Yellow or Summer Hawthorn. — Leaves thick, 



140 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



wedge-obovate serrate, and slightly lobed above the middle, 
tapering into a short petiole. Flowers in small clusters or soli- 
tary. Fruit quite large, round, or pear-shaped, yellow or green- 
ish yellow, sometimes tinged or spotted with red, and pleasant 
flavored. A tree twenty feet high, from Virginia, south and 
west, 

C.riynlaris, Nutt. — Eiver Hawthorn. — Leaves ovate, or oblong- 
ovate, contracted at the base into a short, slender petiole, irregu- 
lar serrate, but rarely divided or lobed. Flowers small, few in 
a cluster. Fruit small, black, and of insipid taste. A small 
tree, seldom twenty feet high. California and northward, and 
east to Montana. 

C. spatlmiata^ Michx. — Spatula-leaved Thorn. — Leaves small, 
spatulate or broadest above, narrowing at the base, those on the 
young, downy branches, somewhat cut or lobed. Flowers in 
large clusters. Fruit very small, red. A small tree, scarcely 
twenty feet high. Virginia and southward. 

C. sul)villosa, Schrader.— Soft-leaved Thorn. — Leaves round- 
ish, soft, downy, not tapering, but often heart-shaped and 
double-toothed. Flowers large and abundant. Fruit about a 
half inch in diameter, dull red and of an insipid flavor. West- 
ern States and South. A small tree. 

C. tomentosa, L. — Black or Pear Hawthorn. — Leaves soft, 
downy when young, becoming smooth with age, three to flve 
inches long, oval or obovate, and but slightly lobed. Flowers 
large, often an inch broad. Fruit very large, nearly or quite 
- an inch long, red or orange yellow, very variable in flavor, 
sometimes sweet, and that of other trees sprightly sub-acid. I 
have eaten varieties of this fruit in Western New York, also in 
Wisconsin, and other localities in the West that were really 
dehcious. There are many and widely variable natural varie- 
ties. A shrub or tree of thirty feet high. Vermont, westward 
to Wisconsin and Iowa, and southward to Georgia. 

C. parvifolia, Ait. — Small-leaved Thorn. — Leaves only about 
an inch long, obovate-serrate, with very short stalk ; spines 
numerous, long and slender. Flowers mostly solitary Fruit 
large, round or pear-shaped, greenish-yellow. A small shrub 
four to six feet high, in pine-barrens from New York south- 
ward. 

There are many exotic species, all with one exception are 
natives of Northern Asia, Europe, and North America. The 



FOREST TREES. 



141 



English Hawthorn (C oxycantha), was introduced and planted 
here quite extensively by the En^Ush colonists, and many at- 
tempts were made to establish hedges of this thorn, but it was 
soon discovered that when close pruned, as in Great Britian, 
the leaves and young twigs were scorched by the hot sun in 
summer, and hedges of this kind were pronounced a failure. 
Still every few years there would be a revival of the interest in 
the English Hawthorn for hedges, and others would try it, and 
for a few years the plants would appear to be doing well, but 
close ijruning, drouths, and insects visually combined as 
enemies of such hedges, but even at this time the remnants of 
those old hedges are to be seen in our Eastern States. But 
there is no difficulty in raising good specimen plants of this 
species, when planted singly and in a moderately moist and 
rich soil. There are a large number of ornamental varieties de- 
scribed in nurserymen's catalogues, and cultivated in gardens. 
There are varieties with single white, pink, and crimson 
flowers. Also those with double flowers of the same colors, 
all really beautiful little trees, well worthy of a i)lace in every 
garden where there is room to plant them. The varieties are 
propagated by budding and grafting upon stocks of the com- 
mon European or native species. 

The Evergreen Thorn (O. Pyracantha), of Southern Europe, 
has become naturalized and run wild in some of the Middle 
and Southern States, and in the latter is considered a most ex- 
cellent hedge plant, as it is a compact growing, very spiny 
shrub, with shining, evergreen leaves. White flowers in spring, 
succeeded by clusters of small orange colored berries. There 
is also a variety with white berries. The evergreen thorns are 
hardy in our Northern States, but the leaves turn brown or 
are entirely destroyed in winter, for this reason they are not 
popular in cool climates. 

CYRiLLA, Linn. 

A genus of two species of small evergreen trees, with op- 
posite leaves, and white, five-petaled flowers, in terminal or 
lateral racemes. Only one species found in the United States. 

Cyrilla racemillora, Walt.— Leaves oblong, three or four inches 
long, on very short petioles. Flowers numerous, in long, 
straight racemes. Fruit a round one or two-seeded drupe, 
tipped with a conspicuous, thick or slender point. A small 
tree, sometimes thirty feet high, along the shady banks of 
streams and ponds, from North Carolina to Florida. 



142 



PRACTICAL FORESTKY. 



DiosPYROS. — Persimmon. 

A large genus of handsome trees of the Ebony Family. 
Flowers polygamous or dioecious, the fertile ones sohtary, and 
the sterile smaller and in clusters. Eepresented in the United 
States by two species. 

Diospyros Yirgiiiiana, Linn. — Persimmon. — Leaves ovate-ob- 
long, smooth, dark-green, with very short peduncles. Flowers 
pale yellow or greenish, four-cleft. Fruit large, plum-like, con- 
taining four to eight seeds. The fruit is quite variable in size, 
shape, and quality. The most common form is round, but oc- 
casional varieties may be found with oblong or oval fruit. 
The taste of all is intensely acerb or astringent while green, but 
becoming eatable, and in some instances of excellent flavor, 
when ripe. In the Northern States, the persimmon seldom 
ripens until touched with frost, still there are varieties which 
ripen earher, and are fully mature a month before the arrival 
of frosts. The persimmon is a fruit well worthy of the atten- 
tion of our pomologists, and could, no doubt, be greatly im- 
proved by cultivation, and new varieties produced equal to 
that of any species of the same genus found in other parts of 
the world. An occasional variety is found with almost seed- 
less fruit, or at most containing only one or two seeds. Im- 
proved varieties may be readily multiplied by budding or 
grafting upon seedHngs of the wild trees. A handsome, orna- 
mental tree with clean, bright foliage, and very heavy, close- 
grained, dark-brown wood. In rich soils, this tree sometimes 
reaches a hight of sixty to seventy feet. In Southern Connec- 
ticut, Northern New Jersey, and southward to Florida. Also 
abundant in Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa, and south- 
ward. 

D. Texanaj Scheele. — Mexican Persimmon.— Leaves cuneate- 
oblong, round at the apex, and only an inch or two long and 
somewhat downy. Flowers silky, tomentose on the outside. 
Fruit downy when young, round, black when matured, contain- 
ing three to eight triangular seeds. Fruit of excellent quality, said 
to ripen in August. A small tree twenty to thirty feet high, 
with white, but heavy wood. Southern and Western Texas, 
and in Mexico. The species are pretty widely distributed over 
the world, in Europe, Asia, New Holland, the East and West 
Indies, and several of the larger Islands furnish one or more. 
The Date-Plum of Europe (D. Lotus), has furnished material 



POREST TREES. 



143 



for many of our ancient romances, and quite recently we have 
discovered that the Japanese have, and cultivate many varieties 
of the Diospyros Kaki, some of them have remarkably large 
and fine fruit. These Japan varieties are being quite success- 
fully cultivated in California, and by a few persons in all our 
Southern States, but they have not proved quite hardy north 
of Washington. Specimens of the Japanese persimmons, 
planted in the neighborhood of New York City, have in some 
instances escajDed being killed by cold, but they are by no 
means hardy in our Northern States. The introduction of their 
fruit will no doubt awaken an interest in this very deserving 
genus, and may result in the improvement of our native varie- 
ties. 

DIPHOLIS, A. DC. 

A genus of tropical or sub-tropical trees, closely allied to the 
Burrehas referred to on a preceding page. One only extend- 
ing as far North as Southern Florida. 

Dipholis salieifolla^ A. DC. — Willow-leaved Dipholis. — Leaves 
evergreen, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, smooth, tapering below 
into a petiole. Flowers small, oval, one-seeded berry, the size 
of a pea, the pulp being very dry, and almost destitute of juice. 
A large tree fifty to sixty feet high on the Florida Keys. 

DRTPETES, A^ahl. 

Tropical evergreen trees or shrubs, with entire smooth, 
petioled leaves, and minute dioecious flowers without petals. 
Fruit a one or two-seeded drupe. 

Drypetes croeea^ Poit. — Leaves three to four inches long, 
oblong, pointed at both ends, and of a leathery texture. 
Flowers small, greenish-white, many in a cluster. Fruit some- 
what four-angled, and velvety, containing one seed. Usually 
considered only a shrub, but some authorities report it a large 
tree in Southern Flordia and in the West Indies. Another but 
smaller species the D. glauca is credited to the same region by 
Dr. Chapman in his Flora of the Southern States, on the 
authority of Dr. Blodgett. But this may be only a variety of 
the last. 

EHRETiA, Linn. 

A genus of tropical evergreen trees or shrubs, of about a 
dozen sx)ecies in the East and West Indies, and New Holland. 
These have small, white flowers and edible fruit. We have 
one species. 



144 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Ehretla clliptica. DC. — Leaves smooth, oval or oblong, some- 
times serrate. Young branclilets and flowers hairy or downy. 
Flowers w^hite and fragrant. Fruit about the size of peas, 
round and yellow when ripe, containing one seed, furrowed on 
the back. A small tree twenty to thirty feet high in South 
Florida, and westward in the swamps of Southern Texas and 
Mexico. For E. radula, Poir., see Bourreria Havanensis. 

EUGEmA, Micheli. — Allsjnce, 

A large genus of evergreen, tropical or sub-tropical shrubs or 
small trees belonging to the Myrtle Family. The greater part 
are indigenous to the Caribbean Islands. Flowers small, and 
the fruit a globose berry, crowned with a persistent calyx. 
Seeds one or two, roundish and large. Four of the species are 
found on our southernmost border. 

Eugenia buxifolia, Willd.— Box-leaved Allspice. -Leaves smooth, 
rather thick, obovate-oblong, about an inch and a half long. 
Flowers minute, with reddish petals. Berry black, about 
three-eighths of an inch in diameter, containing one to three 
seeds. Wood hard and close-grained. A tree about twenty 
feet high, growing in sterile places, near the sea, at Key West, 
and on several of the islands in the West Indies. 

E. dieliotomaj DC. — Small-leaved Eugenia. — Leaves oblong- 
obovate, roughened with appressed hairs, becoming smooth. 
Flowers long, peduncles reddish, berry about the size of a pea, 
one-seeded. Branches covered with a smooth, grayish bark. 
Wood hard. A small tree in Southern Florida and the West 
Indies. Cultivated in conservatories at the North on account 
of its fragrance. 

E. procera, Poir. — Tall Eugenia. — Leaves smooth, ovate-taper- 
ing, but with a rather blunt point. Flowers solitary, or only 
two to four together, same color as the last. Berry small, 
round, not larger than a grain of black pepper ; one-seeded. 
Wood white, close-grained. The bark on the twigs and smaller 
brahches, silvery white. A small tree, twenty to thirty feet 
high at Key West and in the W^est Indies. 

FAGUS, Tour. — Beech, 

Mostly large, handsome timber trees, those of the northern 
hemisphere deciduous, but there are two evergreen species in 
South America, and one in New Zealand. Sterile flowers in 
small heads, on drooping peduncles, the fertile ones in pairs on 



FOREST TREES. 



145 



the summit of a scaly-bracted peduncle. The fruit, a pair of 
triangular-shaped nuts, enclosed in a prickly involucre. 

Fa^ns ferruginea, Ait. — American Beech. — Leaves oblong- 
ovate, silky on both sides when young, becoming smooth with 
age, except on the veins ; edges serrate or distinctly toothed. 
Nuts well known for their rich and delicate flavor. The beech 
is one of our most noble and valuable forest trees, and of a 
graceful habit. The leaves remain green until quite late in the 
season, seldom changing color until cut by frost, when unfor- 
tunately they do not drop at once, but remain attached to the 
branches for weeks or months, a few dropping at a time, all 
through the winter. This habit of retaining the dead and dry 
leaves in winter is an objection to the beech as a lawn tree, 
because there is a constant littering of the grounds until the new 
foliage pushes in spring. Bark on the stem and branches 
smooth, and of a grayish-white color, in fact, the beech may 
be termed one of the cleanest-looking trees of our forest, and it 
is seldom attacked by insects. Wood very hard and firm, sus- 
ceptible of a very fine polish, and is next to the hickory in 
value for fuel. In some soils, the wood Is white even in quite 
large trees, but in others it is of a rich brown or reddish, and I 
have seen trees in our northern woods that were over two feet 
in diameter that did not have more than two inches of white 
wood on the outside, all the rest being of a brown color. Wood 
extensively employed for making plane stocks, handles for 
tools, cabinet work, hewn timber, and other purposes. The 
roots of the beech do not usually go deeply in the ground, but 
keep close to the surface, especially in moist, stony soils, which 
it frequents. It is an excellent tree for planting in rocky, 
exposed situations, as its slender, tough branches withstand 
high winds and cold storms. The nuts may be treated the same 
as recommended for the chestnut, but almost any quantities of 
the natural seedlings can be procured in our northern woods, and 
they can be readily transplanted without much loss. A com- 
mon tree in Nova Scotia, Canada, and all of our Northern 
States and southward, along the mountains and valleys in rich 
soils to Florida. 

The European Beech {F. sylvatica) is very similar to the 
American, but distinguished by shorter and broader leaves, 
with somewhat wavy margins. Of this species there are many 
varieties in cultivation, and among the best known are the fol- 
lowing, aU of which are large trees : Purple-leaved (F, var. pur- 

7 



146 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



purea), found in a forest in Germany. Crested-leaved {F, var. 
crestata). Copper-leaved (F. var. cuprea). Silver-leaved (F. var. 
fol argented). Golden-leaved {F. var. fol aurea). Cut-leaved 
(F, var. incisa). Fern-leaved {F, var. heterophylla). Oak-leaved 
{F. var. quercifoUd), Weeping Beech {F. var. pendula). These 
are all hardy in our Northern States, and are propagated by 
grafting on stocks of the common American or European beech. 

The F. antarctica is a deciduous species, native of the region 
about the Straits of Magellan and Patagonia, S. A., where it 
grows to a large tree sixty or more feet in hight. Leaves small, 
and fruit not much larger than buckwheat. F. betuloides is 
indigenous to the same region, but has smaller and evergreen 
leaves. A small tree, twenty to thirty feet high. I do not 
know that any attempts have been made to introduce these spe- 
cies, but it is likely that they would succeed in the United 
States. 

Fagus obliqiia is another evergreen species, native of the 
Andes, S. A., and F, Cunninghami is a large evergreen tree in 
New Zealand. 

ricus, Tour. — Fig. 

This is an extensive genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of the 
easiest cultivation, all native of tropical or subtropical countries, 
extending entirely around the world. The Ficus elastica is the 
well-known India rubber tree, and the celebrated Banyan Tree, 
of India, is the Ficus Indica, the juice of which is used by the 
Hindoos to cure the toothache, and the bark is considered an 
excellent tonic. Ficus carica furnishes the well-known figs of 
commerce. There is nearly or quite one hundred species, of 
which three are natives of the United States. 

Ficus aureaj Nutt. — Small-fruited Fig. — Leaves smooth, oblong, 
entire, narrowed, but rather blunt at both ends. The figs are 
about the size of peas, produced in pairs, close to the stem, and 
of an orange-yellow color when ripe. According to Dr. Blodgett, 
the discoverer of this species, it is parasitical on other trees, but 
by destroying its supporters it at length reaches the ground, 
and then takes root in the earth, and becomes a large tree. 
Key West, Florida. 

F. breyifolia, Nutt. — Short-leaved Fig. — Leaves about two 
inches long, by one and a half broad. Figs about the size of 
small cherries, on the ends of the twigs, light purple or red 
when ripe. A small and rare tree, at Key West, Florid? 



FOEEST TREES. 



147 



F. pedunculata. — Cherry Fig. — Leaves ovate or oval, rather 
thick, of a leathery appearance on upper surface, somewhat 
heart-shaped at base, stalk slender. Fruit nearly round, about 
the size of small cherries, greenish-yellow or purplish when 
ripe. A lofty tree of fifty feet high, sending down aerial roots, 
like the famous Banyan tree. Southern Florida and the West 
Indies. 

FRAxmus^ Tour. — The Ash, 

A very extensive genus, and most of the species are large 
trees, well adapted for planting in forests. The leaves are odd- 
pinnate, and from five to nine leaflets. Flowers dioecious or 
mostly so, very small, not at all showy, except on a few spe- 
cies, and those native of our Eastern States, are entirely desti- 
tute of petals. Fruit winged, sometimes only above, in others 
all around, and in a few the seed is three-winged and three- 
celled. Trees usually well furnished with small, fibrous roots, 
and not difficult to transplant and make grow. Quite free from 
the habit of producing suckers, when the roots are broken or 
otherwise injured. 

F. AMERICANA. — White Ash, 

Leaflets ovate-oblong, or lanceolate-oblong, pointed, edges 
nearly or quite entire, smooth on the upper surface, and downy 
beneath. Fruit rather short, somewhat wedged-shape, rounded 
at lower end, winged above. A very large, handsome tree, with 
gray furrowed bark on the main stem, and that on the young 
branchlets of a greenish-gray color, smooth, buds rusty-colored 
in winter. This species deserves special attention on account of 
the great value of its timber, it being one of the toughest and 
hardest of the whole genus. The wood of what is termed second 
growth trees, or those springing up after the original forests 
have been removed, or from seed, scattered in open fields, is 
usually superior in toughness to the first growth or large trees. 
The superiority of many of our farm implements is due in a 
great measure to the tough, but light ash timber, which enters 
into their construction. It is not only used for agricultural 
implements, but for carriages, oars, cabinet work, floors in 
dwellings, in fact, white ash is well adapted to all purposes 
where a light colored, tough, and hard wood is wanted. A tree 
of rapid growth, and reaching a hight of seventy to eighty feet, 
and thrives in a great variety of soils, but succeed best in a 
rich, moist one. Common in all our Eastern States, Canada, 



148 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



and westward to Nebraska, and southward to the Gulf, but it is 
becoming scarce in many localities, where a few years ago it 
was quite abundant. We have no native tree more worthy of 
extended cultivation than the White Ash, or one the wood of 
which is likely to be in greater demand a few years hence. 

F, A. var. microcarpa, is a kind of a sport, found in Alabama, 
with very small fruit, but seedless or without any germ or meat, 
as usually termed. 

F. A. var. Texensis, is a small tree with about five leaflets, 
with fruit scarcely an inch long. Has been described under 
various names by different botanists. A low growing tree, on 
rocky hills, from Austin, Texas, to the Rio Grande. Gray, in 
Flora of North America. 

F, anomala, Torr. — Leaves mostly simple, sometimes two or 
three foliate ; oval or heart-shaped, thin ; the young shoots soft, 
pubescent. Flowers in short panicles. Fruit oblong, wings 
extending to the base. A small tree in Southern Utah, some- 
times twenty feet high or over in the canyons. 

F. ciispidata, Torr. — Leaves five to seven, lanceolate, and 
gradually tapering to a sharx^ point. Flowers with a four- 
pointed corolla, a half inch long. Fruit small, about a half 
inch long. A small shrub, six to eight feet high in South- 
western Texas and New Mexico. 

F. dipetela^ Hook, and Arn. — Two-petaled Ash. — Leaflets five 
to nine, oval or oblong, serrate, and only an inch or two long. 
Flowers with two petals, in panicles clustered on short, lateral 
spurs. Fruit about an inch long, broad at the top, with sharp 
edges below. This is the Ornus dipetela of Nuttall. A small 
tree in Western Cahf ornia, and of which there are two or three 
natural varieties. 

F. Greggii, Gray.— Is a small shrub, closely allied to the last, 
and found in limestone soils in Southwest Texas and in New 
Mexico. 

F. Orcgona) Nutt.— Oregon Ash. —Leaflets five to seven, 
lanceolate-oblong to oval, entire, or nearly so, two to four 
inches long. Fruit about an inch long, somewhat club-shaped, 
widening upward into a long, broad wing. A large tree, with 
wood resembling the White Ash of the East. Along streams 
in Washington Territory, and southward near the coast to San 
Francisco. 

F. pistaeisefolia, Torr. — Leaflets five to nine, petioles short, 



FOREST TREES. 



149 



from lanceolate to oval, entire, or slightly serrate. Fruit small 
and crowded, somewhat club-shaped. A small tree, but rather 
stocky ; twenty to thirty feet high, with stems a foot or more 
in diameter. Southwest Texas, Arizona, and Mexico. A rigid 
form of this (var. coriacea), with thick leathery leaves, fre- 
quents the arid districts of Arizona. 

F. platyearpa, Michx. — Water Ash. — Leaflets five to seven, 
ovate-oblong, pointed, and sharply serrate or entire. Fruit ellip- 
tical, broad above, two inches long, contracted below, sometimes 
three-winged. Young branches round, smooth or pubescent. A 
small tree, thirty or forty feet high, from Southern Virginia in 
swamps to Florida, and westward to Louisiana. Said to be also 
found in Cuba. 

F. pubescens, Lam. — Red Ash. — Leaflets seven to nine, oblong- 
ovate, gradually pointed, green above, and pale velvety 
beneath. The young branches and leaves are quite velvety at 
first, hence the specific name. Inside of the bark reddish or 
cinnamon-color. A small, but rather slender tree, in swamps, 
and along streams. Canada to Florida, and westward to 
Dakota, but far more common in the Eastern than in the West- 
em States. 

F. sambacifolia. — ^Black Ash. — Lsaflets seven to eleven, green 
on both sides, oblong-lanceolate, form a roundish base, grad- 
ually tapering to a point, finely and sharply serrate. Flowers 
entirely naked. The crushed leaves exhale the odor of the com- 
mon Elder (Sambucus). Fruit flat, and winged all around. 
Tree of moderate size, but quite tall, stems slender, a foot in 
diameter in trees sixty to seventy feet high, in rich swamps, 
and along streams. Wood coarse-grained, but exceedingly 
tough, readily separated into thin layers, hence its extensive 
use by the early settlers in our Northern States for seating 
chairs, making baskets, and various other household uses. A 
valuable tree for planting in moist and wet soils. Canada to 
Virginia, and westward to Arkansas. 

F. Tiridis, Michx. — Green Ash. — Leaflets five to nine, bright 
green on both sides, sometimes a little whitish on the under 
side ; oblong-ovate, more or less toothed. Fruit flattish, two- 
edged at base, widening into a long, lance linear wing. A 
variable species, closely allied to the Red Ash, but a smaller 
tree, most common in low grounds. West and South, but found 
from Canada to Florida, and westward to Dakota and Arizona. 



150 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Several ornamental varieties of the American Ash have been 
propagated by our nurserymen, and among them the Aucuba- 
leaved, Walnut-leaved, and Cloth-like-leaved are perhaps the 
best. 

FOREIGN SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

The foreign species and varieties of the Ash, are so very 
numerous that my limited space will not admit of mentioning 
only a few of the most distinct and desirable. The common 
European Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), has been cultivated so many 
centuries, and so extensively that it has yielded a very large 
number of interesting varieties, that have been perpetuated by 
the usual methods of budding and grafting F. ex. var. pendula 
(Weeping Ash) should be grafted high in order to allow of the 
branches descending a considerable distance before touching 
the ground. F. ex. aurea pendula, similar to the last, but with 
golden yellow bark. F. ex. var. aurea, is of upright growth, 
but with golden bark. F. ex. salicifoUa (Willow-leaved Ash). 
Leaves narrow, resembling the Willow, and there is another 
closely allied variety, known as F. scolopendrifolia which has 
long, drooping, grass-like foliage. F. var. monopliylla has 
single, entire-leaves, instead of pinnate foilage, which is the 
usual form of the Ash leaf. The Flowering Ash {F. Ormis) of 
Europe is a handsome tree, with large clusters of white 
flowers. Hardy, and should be more frequently planted in the 
gardens and parks of this country. The varieties of Ash are not 
always constant, and often require pruning away of branches 
which revert to the original type. This is especially the case 
with the Weeping, and Variegated-leavcd varieties. Some- 
times branches of the Weeping Ash assume an erect habit, and 
if not removed, will seriously interfere with the growth of the 
pendulous ones. In fact, these trees are all more or less in- 
clined to sport," and as an instance of the sudden and wide 
departure from the normal form, I will call the readers at- 
tention to the Romilly Ash, shown in figure 37, copied from 
*'The Garden," Eng. This handsome Weeping Ash tree is grow- 
ing at Remilly, not far from Metz, France, and has been 
named by Mr. Carriere, Fraxinus pendida remilly ensis. This 
tree is about sixty-five high, with a stem nearly six feet in 
circumference. The leaflets are broad, and very much like 
those of the common Weeping Ash. A few years ago three 
shoots started from the pendulous branches as shown at A,B,C, 



FOREST TREES. 



151 



these growinp^ uprip^ht, and tlie leaves on these are very- 
narrow, tai^er-poinled, and of a deeper and more glossy green. 
If such freaks of nature occur in such large old trees, wo may 




Yvj;. 157.— HEM ILLY ASH. 

confidently expect equally as curious oncis to occur among seod- 
lin^i:s raised under artificial conditions. 

Several species and varieties of the Ash have recently been 



152 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



introduced from Japan, but they have not as yet been sufficient- 
ly tested to determine their value, but some of them are known 
to be quite tender in our Northern States. 

GLEDiTSCHixV^ L. — Honey Locust, 

A genus of handsome deciduous trees, with Ught and airy 
foliage. The flowers small and inconspicuous, but are suc- 
ceeded by one or many-seeded linear, and often twisted pods, 
containing a sweetish pulp, hence the common name. Om' in- 
digenous species are, 

Gleditscliia triacantlios, Linn. — Three-thorned Acacia or Honey 
Locust. — Leaflets lanceolate-oblong, of a light, bright-green 
color. Thorns mostly compound, flattish at the base, and ta- 
pering with branches toward the end, very hardy and strong, 
and on old trees these thorns are often nearly or quite a foot 
long. Pods ten to twenty inches long, and an inch or more 
wide, usually slightly twisted. Seeds compressed, very hard 
and horn-like. The pods often hang on the trees nearly all 
winter. Seeds do not germinate readily if allowed to become 
dry, but by scalding and soaking in tepid water for a few days, 
seed two or three years old can usually be made to grow. The 
thorns appear on all parts of the tree, and very large ones pro- 
trude from the main stem, and larger branches, and these, when 
they fall off, become dangerous to animals and persons 
frequenting the ground where the trees are growing, and this is 
one of the greatest objections to this handsome tree. It is 
often used for hedges, but when pruned, the twigs and branches 
should be carefully gathered up and burned, or otherwise de- 
stroyed. It is a very large, handsome, clean tree, seldom at- 
tacked by insects, and quite hardy in our most Northern 
States. The wood is heavy, hard, and rather coarse-grained 
and valuable for many purposes. A variety of this known 
as inermis or thornless, frequently appears among seed- 
lings, and occasionally very large specimens are seen, and 
are much more desirable than those bearing thorns, but 
they can only be increased by budding or grafting, as they 
do not come true from seed. Var. Biijoti pendula (Bujot's 
Weeping) is an elegant, small tree with drooping foHage, 
coming into leaf quite late in spring. Said to be not quite 
hardy at Rochester, N. Y. , but it is in my grounds, as I have 
one tree twenty years old, that has never been injured, even in 
the coldest winters. 



FOKEST TKEES. 



153 



The Honey Locust is supposed not to be indigenous east of 
the Alleghany Mountains, although very large old trees are 
found in nearly all of our Eastern States, probably raised from 
seed brought from Western localities. More or less common 
from Pennsylvania southward to Florida, and westward to the 
Valley of the Mississippi. 

G. monosperma, Nutt. — ^ Water Locust. — Leaflets ovate or ob- 
long, thorns mostly simple, not branched. Pods short, oval, 
one-seeded, without pulp. A small tree in swamps and low 
grounds, from Southern Illinois to Florida. It is occasionally 
planted for ornament. 

FOREIGisT SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

G. Caspica, — Caspian Honey Locust. — A rapid growing tree 
of irregular form, but with large foliage. Thornless. 

G. Siiiensis.--Chinese Honey Locust. — Has stouter and conical 
thorns, and broader and more oval leaflets. A small tree, quite 
hardy in our Northern States. There is also a thornless varie- 
ty of this species also hardy. 

gordo:n'ia, Ellis. — Loblolly Bay, 

Elegant, small shrubs, or large trees, with showy flowers, 
closely related to the common camellia. Flowers with five 
thick petals, imbricated in the bud. Fruit woody, five-valved, 
containing rather long, angular, or winged seeds. Mostly 
native of the West Indies, one species in the Island of Java, 
and two in our Southern States. Propagated from seed, or by 
cuttings or layers. 

Gordonia Lasianthus, L. — Loblolly Bay. — Leaves obvate-oblong, 
narrowed in a petiole, finely serrate ; evergreen. Flowers 
silky, two inches broad, white with long stalks, appearing in 
July and August. A large tree thirty to sixty feet high, with 
a stem nearly two feet in diameter. Wood of a reddish color, 
rather fight and brittle, not considered valuable. In swamps 
of Southern Virginia, Florida, and west to Louisiana. 

G. pubescens, L. Herit. — Leaves obovate-oblong, sharply serrate, 
white beneath, deciduous. Flowers silky, on short stalks, 
white, fragrant, and nearly three inches broad. A small tree 
about thirty feet high in Georgia, and near the coast south- 
ward. Hardy as far north as Philadelphia, and quite a large 
specimen was formerly growing in the old Bartram Garden, 
Michaux ; also Meehan, in Hand Book of Ornamental Trees. 



154 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



GUAICU3I. — Lignum Vitm. 

A genus of only a few species of evergreen trees and shrubs, 
of the West Indies, and South America. One of the species 
(G. offlcinale) yields the peculiar substance known as giiaicum, 
used as a medicine. Wood exceedingly hard and heavy. Plants 
sometimes cultivated in green-houses as a curiosity, and propa- 
gated by cuttings which grow quite readily if taken off at a 
joint and set in sand where they can be given bottom heat. We 
have one species 

Gnaieam saiutaui, L. — Lignum Vitae. — Leaflets six to eight, 
obovate or oblong, tipped with a short point, entire. Flowers 
clustered at the forks of the branches, about half an inch broad, 
blue or purple. A small tree in Southern Florida, and the 
West Indies. 

For G. angustifolium of Engelmann, see Porliera, 

GYMi^ocLADUS, Lam. — Coffee Tree. 

A genus of only one species, and its name is from two Greek 
words, meaning naked branches, for when the large leaves fall 
in autumn the tree appears destitute of any fine twigs or 
spray. 

Gymnocladus Canadcnsi;*.— Kentucky Coffee Tree.— Leaves very 
large, two to three feet long, twice pinnate, each partial leaf 
stalk bearing seven to thirteen ovate leaflets, except the lowest 
pair, which are single and two to three inches long, the leaflets 
usually hanging edgewise. The color of the leaves is a bluish- 
green. The flowers are whitish, borne in short spikes, and 
the two sexes on separate trees, consequently, both must be 
present in order to secure fruit on one. Fruit an oblong pod, 
six to ten inches long, one to two inches broad, containing 
several large, slightly flattened, smooth, hard, nut-like seeds. 
Wood of a reddish color, compact, very tough, and suscei)tible 
of a high polish, but so cross-grained that it can scarcely be 
split, and wlien sawed into planks it warps very much in season- 
ing. A very large tree, with a rough bark, sixty to eighty feet 
high, and stem two feet or more in diameter. From Western 
New York to Nebraska, and southward to Tennessee, reaching 
its greatest size in the latter State and Kentucky. Readily 
propagated by seeds or root cuttings. A rapid growing tree in 
moist, rich soils, but succeeds poorly in light, dry soils. Not 
especially valuable except as an ornamental tree. 



FOREST TREES. 



155 



HALESiA^ Ellis. — Silver-hell Tree. 

A genus of deciduous shrubs, or small trees, with large, veiny 
and pointed leaves, and showy white, or pinkish flowers, on 
long, slender stalks in clusters or short racemes, from axillary 
buds of the preceding year. Fruit large, and dry, with two 
to four wings, the shell within very hard and horn-like. Seeds 
cylindical, and oval in each cell. Three species, and all indi- 
genous to the United States. 

Halesia diptera, L. — Two- winged Silver-bell Tree. — Leaves 
oval, coarsely serrate, four to five inches long, soft, pubescent. 
Flovv'ers white, about an inch long, on slender pedicels. Fruit 
compressed, an inch long, with two wings. A small tree or 
large shrub, with very hard wood. In rich woods of Georgia 
and Florida, and westward. Not quite hardy in the latitude of 
New York, but sometimes escapes injury if planted in a pro- 
tected situation. 

H, tetraptera, L. — Silver-bell or Snow-drop Tree. — Leaves ob- 
long, finely serrate, two to four inches long. Flowers two to 
four in a cluster, nearly an inch long, pure white. Fruit with 
four wings. A very handsome, small tree, if kept properly 
pruned, otherwise it will form a large dump with several 
stems springing from the same root. If kept to a single stem, 
it will grow thirty or more feet high, with a stem a foot in 
diameter. Wood light-colored, exceedingly hard, and fine 
grained. A handsome, ornamental plant, hardy in most of 
our Northern States. Native of Southern Illinois, Arkansas, 
and southward to Louisiana, and eastward to North Carolina 
and Florida. 

H, parviflora, Michx. — Small Flowered Snow-drop Tree. — 
Leaves ovate-oblong, pointed, soft and velvety while young. 
^ Flowers four to five in a clustered somewhat leafy raceme. 
Smaller than the last, and more or less tinged with red or pale- 
rose. Fruit slender and unequally winged. Michaux gives 
Florida as its native habitat. It appears to be a rather rare 
shrub in cultivation, and seldom mentioned in nurserymen's 
catalogues. I have a specimen plant in my grounds set out 
twenty years ago, and it has never failed to bloom, showing 
that this species is quite hardy even in our Northern States. It 
is merely a large shrub, six to ten feet high, and the stems not 
as large or stocky as in the other two species. 



156 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



HETEROMELES, Eoemer. — Toyon or Tollon. 

A genus of single evergreen species, closely related to the 
Hawthorn, but differing in form of the calyx, number and 
position of the stamens, and other parts of both flowers and 
fruit. It has been described under seven different specific 
names, by as many botanical authorities. 

Heteromeles arbutifoliaj Roemer. — Arbutus-leaved Toyon. — 
Leaves deep-green above, light-green beneath, oblong-lanceolate, 
two to four inches long, on short stalks, margin shghtly revo- 
lute. Flowers somewhat soft and velvety, with five white, 
spreading petals in terminal corymbose panicles. Fruit 
about a quarter of an inch in diameter, red, and of the same 
flavor as some of the Hawthorns. A small tree or large shrub, 
in the Coast Ranges of California. 

HiPPOMAiSTE, Linn. — MancJiineeL 

Tropical evergreen trees, abounding in a white, milky juice, 
which is very poisonous, and if it touches the skin will cause 
severe irritation and blisters. There are two species, one of 
which is found on our southern border. 

Hippomane Mancinellaj L. — Manchineel. — Leaves alternate, 
ovate-serrulate, pointed, nearly smooth. When the leaves fall 
off with age, they leave large scars, giving to the branches and 
stems a very rough appearance. Flowers minute, greenish, 
without petals, and in short spikes of about two inches in length. 
Fruit large, somewhat resembling apples, but said to be poison- 
ous. The old botanist, Jacquin, said that they were eaten by 
the sea crabs. Wood heavy, clear-grained and beautifully 
variegated, and veined with various shades of brown, white, 
and yellow. Highly valued for fancy boxes, and other kinds 
of cabinet work, as the polished surface of the wood resembles 
some of the finest varieties of marble. In cutting the tree, the 
workmen have to be very cautious to prevent the juice getting 
upon their flesh. This tree grows to an immense size in the 
West Indies, but only forty or fifty feet high in Southern Flor- 
ida. 

HYPELATE. — Honey-levry, 

A small genus of sub-tropical evergreen trees, principally in 
the West Indies, where they are cultivated for their small, 
sweet, and edible berries. One native of Ceylon, and two 
scatteringly in Southern Florida. 



POEEST TREES. 



157 



Hypelate panicnlata, — Maderia Wood, Honey-berry, Genip-tree. 

—Leaves abruptly pinnate, leaflets oblong, entire, two to three 
inches long, smooth, deep-green above, and pale beneath. 
Fruit round, of a green color, pulp sub-acid, astringent or sweet- 
ish when fully ripe. This is the Melicocca paniculata of Jussieu. 
A small tree in Southern Florida, and the West Indies. Wood 
hard and flexible, used for bows and spears. 

H. trifoliata. — Three- leaved Genip-trce. — Leaves trifoliate ; 
leaflets obovate, rather thick, and of a leathery appearance on 
the upper surface. Flowers small, white, in a short panicle or 
cluster, only a few in number. Fruit black and only one- 
seeded. A small tree with brittle branches. Southern Florida 
and the West Indies. 

ILEX, Linn. — Holly, 

Avery extensive genus of small trees and shrubs, mostly with 
thick and rigid evergreen leaves, smaU white flowers and red 
berry-like fruit. Hollies are to be found in nearly all parts of 
the world, but mainly in temperate climates, but most highly 
prized as ornamental plants in Great Britain, where, from the 
European Holly (Ilex AquifoUum), scores of elegant varieties 
have been produced and extensively propagated. These European 
varieties are not well adapted to our dry and hot climates, 
and are seldom cultivated, except in conservatories, or in such 
positions where they can bo protected in winter, and shaded 
from the hot sun in summer. We have only two species that 
grow to the size of trees. 

Ilex Dahoon, Nutt. — Dahoon Holly. — Leaves acute or obtuse, 
serrate, or toothed with sharp points, young branches and lower 
surface of the leaves more or less pubescent. There are several 
well-marked wild varieties. A small tree, with very hard 
wood, sometimes twenty-five or thirty feet high. Virginia to 
Florida and westward. 

I. opafa, Alton. — American Holly. — Leaves oval, concave, 
wavy, and sharp spines on the margins. Flowers at the base 
of the previous season's shoots, succeeded by bright red berries, 
which remain on the tree all winter, and are much sought 
after about the holidays for decorating churches and private 
dwellings. A tree from twenty to forty feet high, wood very 
hard. Found sparingly in Southern New England, Long Island, 
New Jersey, and southward to Florida. One of our most 
beautiful broad-leaved evergreen trees, scarcely hardy north of 



158 



PRACTICAL FOKESTRT. 



the latitude of New York City, except in protected situations. 
I have specimens in my own grounds standing on the south 
side of Arbor Vitses and other positions, where they are shield- 
ed from north-west winds, that have never been injured, but 
others not a hundred feet distant, are often badly browned in 
winter. Our American Holly is well worthy of more extended 
cultivation than it has ever received, and should be planted as 
an under-shrub in forests, wherever the climate will permit. 
The seed should be stored in moist earth or sand for one year 
before sowing, for if sown as soon as gathered, they will not 
sprout until the second year. The Hollies are readily propagated 
by grafting in spring, or budding in the latter part of summer. 
The weak-growing or dwarf species and varieties being worked 
on the strong. 

I, Cassiae, L. — Yaupon Holly. — Leaves small, one-half to an 
inch long, oval or oblong, with the edges scalloped into rounded 
teeth. Fruit very abundant, and in clusters. The leaves of 
this species are sometimes used as a substitute for genuine tea, 
and are known in the South as Yaupon tea. A small shrub, 
only eight to ten feet high, in sandy soils from North Carolina 
southward. 

I. glabra. Gray. — Common Inkberry. — Leaves smooth, wedge 
oblong or obovate, slightly toothed near the apex. Fruit small, 
black. A small shrub along the coast of New England, New 
Jersey, and southward to Florida. 

I. coriacea, Piiiios coiiacea. Ell. — Leaves somewhat like the 
last, but with sharp scattered teeth on the margin. A small 
shrub in wet places in the South. 

We also have some four or five deciduous species of the Bex 
or Prinos of some botanists, but all are shrubs, mostly frequent- 
ing swamps and low grounds. The J. verticillata, Gray, is 
known as Black Alder or Winterberry, the bright scarlet ber- 
ries in autumn and early winter make this shrub a very con- 
spicuous object in swamps and low grounds in our Northern 
as well as Southern States. 

JUGLAXS, Linn. — Butternuts, JVahiuts. 

In species this genus is quite restricted, there being but one 
indigenous to the eastern hemisphere, and four to the western, 
and all these natives of the United States. They are large trees 
with one exception, bearing edible nuts, some of which are 
highly prized and extensively cultivated. Flowers similar to 



FOREST TKEES. 



159 



those of the Hickory {carya), the staminate catkins produced 
from the previous year's wood, long, solitary, or in pairs. Fer- 
tile flowers soUtary, or few in a short terminal spike; the calyx 
adhering to the ovary. Fruit fleshy, enclosing an irregularly 
rough nut. Wood of all valuable. 

Jnglans Californica, Watson. — California Walnut. — Leaves more 
or less downy. Leaflets five to eight pairs, oblong-lanceolate, 
acute, narrowing upward from near the base, and two to two- 
and a half inches long. Fruit round, sHghtly compressed, 
about an inch in diameter, shell rather thin, with two broad 
cavities upon each side. A tree or large shrub near San Fran- 
cisco, and on the Sacramento a tree forty to sixty feet high, and 
stems two to four feet in diameter. Also in Southern Califor- 
nia, Arizona, New Mexico, and in Sonora, Mexico. 

J. cinerea, L. — Butternut. — Leaflets oblong-lanceolate, pointed, 
rounded at the base, downy, especially uuderneath, and the 
petioles and branchlets with clammy hairs. Fruit oblong, 
clammy, and the nut deeply sculptured and with ragged sharp) 
ridges ; kernel sweet, rich, and oily. A well-known tree with 
gray bark, and only sKghtly furrowed on the stems of old 
trees. Wood light- colored, only moderately hard, very dur- 
able, and considered valuable for cabinet work and various 
other purposes. The inner bark has long been used for color- 
ing cloth, and the historic "Butternut color" is not quite ex- 
tinct, although not so common as it was a hali century ago. 

A large tree in the bottoms along our northern rivers ; some- 
times sixty feet in hight, and stem two feet or more in diame- 
ter. A rapid growing tree, readily raised from the nuts, and 
can be safely transplanted at almost any age, especially when 
raised in nurseries and moved when young. A common tree 
in nearly all of our Northern States, and southward along the 
mountains. 

J. nigra. — Black Walnut.— Leaflets eleven to twenty-one, ovate- 
lanceolate, slightly pubescent beneath, pointed, slightly heart- 
shaped at base ; neither leaves, stalks, or fruit clammy, as in 
the last. Fruit large, round, somewhat dotted, but not fur- 
rowed. Shell of nut black, or dark brown, very rough ; kernel 
large, very oily, and a strong, rather disagreeable flavor, but 
not at all poisonous as sometimes stated. Wood of a dark, 
rich brown color, rather hard and firm, but susceptible of a 
high polish, and probably more extensively employed for first- 
class cabinet work than any other native wood, it is also ex- 



160 



PEACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



tensively used for gun-stocks, hand-rails, floors, stairs, and in- 
side finishing generally. One of our most valuable timber 
trees, once so abundant in some of our Western States, as to 
be employed for fencing, and many farms have been enclosed 
with fences made of black walnut rails. If the trees had 
been left standing, they would now be worth many times 
more than the land is, from which they were so ruthlessly 
destroyed. The Black Walnut is a noble tree with a very erect 
straight stem, often reaching a hight of sixty to ninety feet, 
and from four to six feet in diameter. The bark is usually 
rough, dark-colored and deeply furrowed. If raised in nur- 
sery rows, and the seedlings transplanted, and roots pruned 
when young, the Black Walnut may be moved without danger 
of loss, when from four to six feet high. For planting, the 
nuts should be gathered in the fall, mixed with soil or sand, 
and left in heaps exposed to frosts during the winter. In 
spring plant them in rows, covering them with an inch or two 
of soil. The Black Walnut is a rapid-growing, hardy tree, 
commencing to bear nuts in eight to ten years, but will require 
from twenty to forty years to reach a size large enough to pro- 
duce boards or planks. It is widely distributed over the United 
States, from Vermont to Florida, and westward to Texas, 
thence northward to Nebraska, but now more abundant west 
of the AUeghanies than east of them. 

J. rupestris, Engelmann. — Leaves composed of from six to 
twelve pairs of leaflets, usually short-pointed. Nut very smaU, 
round, very thick, nearly solid walls. A small tree or shrub, 
ten to twenty feet high, in Western Texas, New Mexico, and 
Arizona. 

FOREIGN SPECIES A^JTD YAEIETIES. 

Juglans regia. — English Walnut, French Walnut, Madeira 
Nut. — ^Leaves composed of from five to nine oval, smooth leaf- 
lets. Fruit round or oval, and when ripe, the husk becomes 
friable and brittle, opening and allowing the nut to fall out. 
The shell is thin, kernel large, with a rich, oily, but rather 
strong taste. A well-known nut in our markets, and through- 
out those of the greater part of the whole world. Although 
often called English or French Walnut, the tree is not a native 
of these countries, but is found in Persia, and according to some 
authorities in China. It has been cultivated for so many cen- 
turies in Europe, that a large number of varieties have been 



FOREST TREES. 



161 



produced there, varying much in the size and quality of the 
nuts, also in the leaves, and form and growth of the trees. In 
general appearance this Koyal Walnut of the East resembles 
our American Butternut, but the trees grow to even a larger 
size. The wood is quite valuable and highly prized in Europe 
for cabinet work and similar uses. But after the discovery of 
America and the introduction from here of 



Black Walnut, which is its superior for similar 
purposes, its value decreased in consequence of 
competition, but even now is much sought after 
and commands a large price. The success of this 




tree in the United States has been greatest in 38.— small 
the Middle and Southern States, still there are j^g^ 
many quite old and large trees in the subuibs 
of New York City, some of which seldom fail to produce a 
good crop of nuts. In years past there has been no especial 
attention given to the selection of varieties adapted to the 
climate of our Northern States, hence there has been more 




Fig. 39.— GIBBOU'S WALNUT. Fig. 40.— BAKTHERE WALNUT. 

failures than successes in attempts to cultivate this Eastern 
nut, but with proper care in selecting seedlings from the cooler 
parts of Europe, and propagating from well-tested varieties 



162 



PUACTICAL FOKESTRY. 



that do succeed here, I can see no good reason why this nut 
should not be raised in abundance in most of our Northern 
States. Eecentlv a dwarf French variety, called the ^'Prepar- 
turiens," has been introduced and largely propagated by our 
nurserymen, as it is said to come into bearing when quite 
young. There is a very large number of varieties cultivated 
in the French and other European nurseries, the nuts varying 
greatly in size and form, as shown in the accompanying illus- 
trations, which I have selected merely to give the reader an 
idea of the extremes of variations to be found among the nuts. 
The Small-fruited Walnut {Juglans regia microcarpa), shown 
in fig. 38, is only about one-half inch in diameter, but the ker- 
nel is sweet, and of a most delicate flavor and texture. This 
is probably the smallest variety known, while the Gibbon's 



Walnut (J. regia Gibhosa), fig. 39, is quite the opposite or the 
largest, and while it has a rather thick shell, the kernel is of 
excellent quality and easily extracted. The Barthere Walnut 
{J. regia Barthereana), fig. 40, is remarkable for its extreme 
length. Its shell is quite thin, and the flavor of the kernel is 
excellent. Between these extremes of variation there are 
scores of others that are quite distinct, and may be found de- 
scribed in the catalogues of European nurserymen. There is a 
also a marked difference in the habit of growth of the differ- 
ent varieties, some being very tall trees, and others dwarfish. 
There are also broad-leaved and narrow-leaved varieties, and 
among the latter the pretty Cut-leaved Walnut {J. r, laciniata), 
fig. 41. 




Fig. 41. — CUT-LEADED WALNUT. 



FOREST TEEES. 



163 



KALMIA. — America7i Laurel, 

A genus of less than a half dozen species, all native of North 
America. Two are low shrubs, and only one growing to the 
hight of twenty feet or more. They all have handsome ever- 
green leaves and showy flowers. The common name "laurel" 
is a misnomer, as the Kalmias are far removed botanically from 
the true Laurels (Laurus). The genus was named for Peter 
Kalm, a pupil of Linnaeus, who visited this country early in 
the last century. 

Ealmia latifoliaj L. — Broad-leaved Kalmia, Calico-bush, Spoon- 
wood. — Leaves oval or lance-oval, bright green on both sides. 
Flowers in large, showy clusters ; white to deep pink or rose, 
with crimson spots, appearing in spring or early summer. One 
of our most beautiful native shrubs or small trees. Common 
in damp soils and rocky woods, from Maine to Florida. Usual- 
ly a low spreading shrub, but in favorable soils in the Middle 
States, it reaches a hight of thirty feet, with a stem a foot or 
more in diameter. Wood very hard and close-grained ; excel- 
lent for handles of tools, wooden spoons, etc. 

K. angnstifollaj L. — Narrow-leaved Kalmia or Sheep Laurel. — 
Leaves very narrow, with short stalks, pale-green beneath. 
Flowers smaller than the last, of a crimson purple color, appear- 
ing late in spring. Has the reputation, probably unjustly so, 
of poisoning sheep and calves, and for this reason has received 
the common names of Lamb-kill and Kill-calf. A shrub from 
two to three feet high, in low, dry grounds. New England to 
Alabama. 

K. cnneata, Michx. — Carolina Sheep Laurel. — Leaves sessile, 
alternate, wedge-shaped, pubescent beneath, bristle-pointed. 
Flowers white. This is a rare shrub and may be only a variety 
of the last. Swamps of North and South Carolina. 

K. glauca, Ait. — Pale Laurel. — Leaves opposite, oblong, whit- 
ish beneath, with revolute margins. Young branches two- 
edged. Flowers in small terminal clusters, of a lilac-purple 
color. A small shrub, only one or two feet high in cold bogs, 
from Pennsylvania northward. 

K. liirsuta, "Walt. — Hairy -leaved, Wicky. — Leaves alternate 
opposite, hairy, and only a half inch long, oval or oblong. 
Flowers numerous but solitary, and of a pale rose-color. A 
shrub six to eighteen inches high, in pine-barrens. Georgia 
and Florida. 



164 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



LAGUXCULARiA, Gsevt. — White Mangrove. 

Small maritime, sub-tropical trees or shrubs, with evergreen, 
opposite leaves, of an elliptical form, and thick and fleshy. 
Flowers small, yellowish white, in simple or compound axillary 
and terminal spikes. Fruit a drupe, with one seed or nut. Wo 
have but one, or at most, two species. 

Lagnneularia ratemo^a, Gaert. — White Mangrove, Black Button 
Tree. — Spikes upright, rigid, hairy, the lateral ones solitary, 
the terminal ones in threes, simple or branched. Flowers scat- 
tered. A small tree or shrub in South Florida and the West 
Indies. The L. gldbriflora of Presl. is probably only a form of 
the above, found in the same regions, neither of any value to 
man so far as known. 

LIQUID AMB A R, L. — Sioeet Gum. 

Deciduous trees, with monoecious flowers, in globular, four- 
bracted spiked heads. The flowers are very small, and have 
neither calyx or corolla, but sterile ones with nuDierous stamens. 
Heads of sterile flowers sessile, crowded, those of fertile ones on 
a long drooping peduncle. Seeds small, angled or scale-like. 
One species belonging to this country. 

Liqnidambar Styraciflua. — Sweet Gum, Bilsted, Alligator-tree. — 
Leaves roundish, but with five to seven-pointed spreading lobes. 
In autumn they assume a rich bronze color, but on some trees 
they change to a crimson. The smaller branches are ornamented 
with prominent corky ridges, and the young twigs can often 
be selected of very curious shapes, having a fanciful resem- 
blance to some of our reptiles, and this may have suggested 
the name of Alligator tree, under which name the twigs are 
frequently sold in the streets of New York. The Sweet Gum 
is one of our most noble forest trees, somewhat resembling the 
Sugar Maple, but with a more conical head, the branches 
spreading widely, often drooping, with the ends cuiwed upward. 
It is also a rapid growing tree, and thrives on a great variety of 
soils, from the light, dry, and sandy, to the cold and wet. Among 
the first trees planted on my lawn was one Liquidambar, and 
I have never regretted giving it a conspicuous position, as it is 
one of the very best ornamental trees in my collection. The 
wood of this tree is very light, but compact, fine grained, but 
not hard, sometimes used for cabinet work, but owing to its 
softness is easily bruised. It is what is termed uneven-grained 



FOKEST TREES. 



165 



wood, warping badly when sawn into boards or planks. It de- 
cays rapidly when exposed to the weather, and is of very little 
value for fuel. Although this is not a valuable timber tree, it 
is well worth cultivating for ornament. A large tree, sixty to 
eighty feet high, with a very straight stem. More abundant in 
the Eastern and Southern States than in the West. Native of 
New England and southward to Central America. Varieties of 
this species appear to be quite rare, and I do not now call to 
mind any that have been disseminated by our nurserymen. 
The late Joseph Long worth, of Cincinnati, Ohio, found a curi- 




Fig. 42.— longworth's liquidambar, 



ous variety several years ago growing in the suburbs of that 
city, and transplanted it to his grounds. The peculiarity of 
this variety was in the form of the leaves, as shown in fig. 42, 
and instead of being five-pointed, star-shaped as usual in the 
species, they have only three prominent points with one or two 
smaller ones. I think that this variety was first described by 
the editor of the American Agriculturist in 1868, who also sug- 
gested that it should bear the name of X. Longworthii. 



166 



PEACTICAL FORESTHY. 



There is an oriental species of the Liquidambar {L, orientalis 
Mill, or L. imherbe, Alton), and although introduced into the 
gardens of England in 1759, it has never become popular as an 
ornamental plant, probably because of its dwarfish habit, 
seldom growing more than a dozen feet high. 

LiRiODEKDKOisr. — TuUp Tree. 

A magnificent native deciduous tree, belonging to the Magnolia 
family. Flowers composed of six petals, bell-shaped. Fruit a 
cone-like head, comprised of a large number of dry seeds, with 
long, narrow scales or wings, attached to a common axis at 
their base, forming a conical spike two inches or more in length. 
Each fruit is composed of sixty or more winged seeds, but only 
a small proportion contain kernels, or will germinate. Seeds 
from old trees are less productive than those from young ones. 
There is but one species. 

Liriodendron Tulipifera.— Tulip Tree, White-wood, Canoe-wood, 
Virginia Poplar. — Leaves large, smooth on both sides, on slen- 
der stalks, somewhat three-lobed, the middle one appearing as 
if it had been cut off, leaving a shallow notch. Flowers bell- 
shaped, greenish-yellow, tinged with orange. The branches 
with smooth, grayish bark. Terminal buds on the shoots 
swell considerably in spring, before the leaves unfold. On 
young thrifty trees the leaves are often six to eight inches in 
diameter, and of a clear, bright-green color. Bark on old trees 
deeply furrowed, and quite thick. One of our finest and 
largest forest trees in the Eastern States, sometimes reaching a 
hight of one hundred and forty feet, with a stem four to six 
feet in diameter. Wood light, soft, but close-grained, easily 
worked, and extensively used for the interior work of carriages, 
furniture, and other purposes where it is not exposed to air 
and moisture. It is only valuable for inside work, for it decays 
rapidly if exposed. This is one of the few kinds of wood that 
will shrink endways of the grain when seasoning. The wood 
is also quite variable in color and texture, and that from the 
largest trees that have grown on rich soils is the most valuable. 
The tulip is readily propagated from seed, and if several times 
transplanted in the nursery, the trees produce a great abundance 
of fibrous roots. Thrives best on light, deep loam, or sandy 
soils. Does not succeed in a heavy clay or in swampy land. 
It is what may be called a very clean tree, only a very few 
species of insects attacking it, and these appearing to do it but 



FOREST TREES. 



167 



little injury. Native of Vermont and southward to Florida, 
and westward to Eastern Kansas. It was formerly quite 
abundant in Western New York, and where very large trees 
were plentiful, but is now scarce, except in some of the forests 
of the Middle States. 

MACLURA, Nutt. — Osage Orange, 

A genus of handsome ornamental trees of moderate size, 
with dioecious flowers, the staminate or male in long racemes, 
resembling those of the common Mulberry, the pistillate 
or fertile flowers densely crowded in a large, spherical bead, 
becoming a compound globular fruit, resembling a large, 
rough orange of a greenish yellow color, containing a large 
number of obovate seeds. Two evergreen species in the West 
Indies and one deciduous in the United States. 

Madura aurantiaca, Nutt. — Osage Orange, Bois d'arc. — Leaves 
alternate, entire, rather long pointed, bright, glossy green, 
usually with a sharp spine at the base of each, even on the 
smallest twigs. Wood solid, heavy and elastic, quite durable, 
of a fine yellow color, which is readily communicated to water. 
Usually a medium-sized tree, but sometimes grows fifty feet 
high, with a stem two feet in diameter. Abundant in the 
South-western States, Eastern Texas, Arkansas, Indian Terri- 
tory. This tree has been more extensively employed for hedges 
than any other, and is well adapted for live fences, as the 
thorns, while abundant, are not so large and strong as to be 
dangerous to stock. It is not quite hardy in our more North- 
ern States, although in sheltered positions the trees grow 
rapidly, and to a considerable size, fruiting quite freely in the 
neighborhood of New York City. The introduction of barbed 
wire fencing has made hedge plants less a necessity than for- 
merly, and the Osage Orange will probably not be very exten- 
sively cultivated in the future, except as an ornamental tree, or 
for feeding the silk- worm, for which the leaves are well 
adapted 

MAG^qoLiA, Linn. 

An extensive and widely distributed genus of trees and 
shrubs, with large and showy flowers. There are both decidu- 
ous and evergreen species, and the larger proportion, and those 
growing to the largest size, are natives of the United States. 
They are usually propagated by seeds or layers, although both 



168 



rRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



budding and grafting are practiced in multiplying rare species 
and varieties. The seeds should never be allowed to get thor- 
oughly dry, but as soon as removed from the pulp, be mixed 
with moist sand or soil, or sovvm immediately. Layers put 
down in spring root freely, but it is well to allow the layered 
branch to grow undisturbed through the entire first season, 
neither cutting it back or removing any of the leaves. Bud- 
ding may be done in summer while there is a rapid flow of sap, 
but grafting is generally most successful upon stocks grown or 
kept in a propagating house until the cion has united, and made 
one season's growth. In grafting the evergreen species, the 
cion should be inserted in the side of the stock and below some 
good healthy leaves, somewhat after the manner of grafting 
conifers. Magnolias should never be transplanted in the 
autumn, especially in cool climates, as their roots are quite 
soft, and the exposed wood and small fibers decay very quickly 
on trees transplanted in the fall. 

Magnolia acuminata^ L. -Cucumber Tree.-Leaves oblong, pointed, 
green above, but slightly paler beneath, five to ten inches long. 
Flowers pale-yellowish-green, about three inches broad. Fruit 
irregular, oblong, containing a few hard, bony, black seeds. 
A handsome, erect-growing, stately tree, sixty to ninety feet 
high, with stem two to four feet in diameter. Wood rather 
soft, of a yellowish-white color, quite durable, and extensively 
used for pump logs ; wooden bowls, and other household uten- 
sils are also made from it. Formerly very abundant in West- 
ern New York and southward along the mountains to Georgia 
and Kentucky. 

M. cordata, Michx. — ^Yellow Cucumber Tree. — Leaves oval or 
roundish, seldom cordate as the name implies, four to six 
inches long, white, downy beneath. Flowers four to six inches 
broad, petals six to nine, of a lemon-yellow color. Fruit oval 
or oblong, about three inches long. A rather broad, spreading 
tree, thirty to forty feet high, quite hardy as far north as New 
York, but native of the mountains of North Carolina, and 
southward to Alabama and Georgia. It is not a very popular 
ornamental tree, and the wood is too soft and light to be of 
much value. 

M. Fraseri, Walt.— Ear-leaved Magnolia. — Leaves nearly a foot 
long, spatulate-obovate, smooth on both sides, heart-shaped, 
and two-eared or auricled at the base ; stalks slender. Flowers 
about six inches broad, white and fragrant. A tall, rather 



FOREST TREES. 



169 



slender tree, quite hardy, often blooming twice in a season in 
the vicinity of New York. Wood soft, but resembling that 
of the first. 

M. glauca, L. — Sweet Bay, Swamp Magnolia. — Leaves quite 
thick, oblong-oval, smooth and glossy above, white or rusty 
pubescent beneath, evergreen in the South, and nearly so in 
protected situations at the North. Flowers composed of nine 
concave petals about two inches broad, white, and very fra- 
grant. Cone of fruit oval, about an inch and a half long, con- 
taining numerous black seeds, enclosed in a light scarlet pulp 
or aril, a character common to most of the species, but in some 
the aril is of a darker color. The Sweet Bay or Swamp Mag- 
nolia is one of our most beautiful ornamental shrubs, or small 
trees, and while it thrives best in low, most soils, it will grow 
quite well in any moderately good garden soil. A small tree, 
but often twenty to thirty feet high in swampy grounds. A 
variety of this, known as the If. longifolia, has larger leaves 
than the species, otherwise not different. Native of Massachu- 
setts, and southward to Florida. 

M. grandiflara, L. — Large-flowered Magnolia, Southern Ever- 
green Magnolia. — Leaves evergreen, thick and leathery, oblong, 
smooth above, rusty i)ubescent beneath, six to twelve inches 
long. Flowers white, fragrant, and from six to ten inches 
broad. Fruit oval, three to four inches long. Wood soft, and 
very white, of little value except for inside work, and where 
it will not be subjected to any wear. A large tree from fifty 
to nearly a hundred feet high, with stem two to three feet 
in diameter. This is, without doubt, the most noble, broad- 
leaved, evergreen tree found in North America. Unfortu- 
nately it is not hardy in our Northern States, and must be 
treated as a green-house shrub, or at least given some protec- 
tion in winter. Native of North Carolina, and south to 
Florida, thence west to Texas, and in the Mississippi Valley 
as far north as Natchez. 

M. macrophylla, Michx. — Great- leaved Magnolia. — Leaves very 
large, sometimes three feet long, usually clustered on the ends 
of the stout, cane-like, whitish, pubescent branches. The 
leaves are broadest above the middle, or obovate-spatulate, 
heart-shaped, or slightly eared at the base, green above, but 
whitish beneath. Flowers white, with a purple spot near the 
base, fragrant, and often twelve inches broad. Fruit nearly 
cylindrical, and about four inches long, the color at maturity is 
8 



170 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRT. 



a deep rose. A tropical-looking tree, growing thirty to forty- 
feet high. Wood soft, and of little value, A rare tree in 
nature, and not found anywhere in great abundance, but scat- 
teringly in North Carolina to Florida, and Kentucky and 
Tennessee. A tree thirty to forty feet high, with a stem a foot 
or a little more in diameter. Quite hardy in the vicinity of 
New York City, but tender farther north. 

M. Umbrella, Lam., M. tripeleta, L. — Umbrella Tree. — Leaves 
clustered at the ends of the branches, obovate-oblong, twelve 
to eighteen inches long, pointed ; downy beneath, but becom- 
ing smooth with age. Flowers of about nine petals, white, six 
to eight inches broad. Fruit oblong, four to six inches long, 
rose-colored when mature ; quite ornamental. A small, rather 
straggling growing tree, thu'ty to forty feet high. Western 
New York, Alleghany County in the hills, and southward in 
the mountains of Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, Northern Ala- 
bama and Georgia, and westward to Kentucky and Tennessee. 
A hardy and very handsome tree. Wood rather soft and of lit- 
tle value. 

M. Thompsoniana. — Thompson's Magnolia. — Supposed to be a 
hybrid between M, glaiica and 3L Umbrella. A medium sized 
tree, with the habits of the last, but blooming irregularly through- 
out the summer. Flowers large, creamy- white and fragrant. 
Propagated by grafting on the stocks of If. acuminata, which 
is also the best stock upon which to work nearly all of the 
species and varieties in cultivation, including the 

FOREIGI^ SPECIES Ais^D VARIETIES. 

Of these there are quite a large number, mainly from China 
and Japan, most of which are hardy in our Northern States. 
Authorities do not agree as to which should be considered as 
species or varieties, but as they are all cultivated as ornamental 
trees or shrubs, and not for any economic purpose, I will only 
name a few of the best known without regard to their botani- 
cal classification. The flowers of the following appear early in 
spring, before the leaves, or with them, and are very showy 
when not cut off by frosts, as they often are — in and above the 
latitude of New York. 

M. atropurpurea. — Dark purple flowers, blooming rather late or 
with the opening of the leaves. 

M. eonspiena. — ^Yulan ; or, Chinese White.— Flowers very large. 



FOREST TREES. 



171 



white ; appearing very early. Quite a tall shrub or tree when 
worked on strong growing stocks. 

M. Lenaei. — Lenne's Hybrid. — Flowers large and showy, crim- 
son outside, and pearl-colored within. 

M. Xorbcrtiana. — Norbert's Hybrid. — A seedling of the next, 
with dark purple flowers. 

M. Soulangeana.— Soulange's Hybrid.— A low spreading tree 
with large whitish flowers, with purple at the base of the 
petals. 

M. speciosa. — Showy Magnolia. — Flowers smaller than the last, 
but appearing a week later, but similar in color. 

M. stricta>— Great Chinese M.— Flowers slightly tinted with 
purple, but almost white, an erect growing and free-blooming 
variety. 

M. superlia. — Superb .Chinese M. — Flowers darker than those 
oi'Soulangea^fi, otherwise quite similar. 

M. hypoleuca. — Japan M. — A recently introduced species, with 
very large leaves sometimes tmted with purpie. A very erect 
growing tree, with creamy- white fragrant flowers, appearing 
after the leaves have expanded. 

M. Kobns. — Thurber's Japan M. — A medium sized bush with 
fragrant blush- white flowers. 

M. paryiflora. — Small-flowered Japan M. — A new variety with 
small, very fragrant flowers. Leaves large and handsome. 

M. purpurea. — Purple Japan M. — An old dwarfish variety, with 
dark, purple flowers, rather tender. A variety of this known 
in catalogues under the name of M, gracilis, has very slender, 
upright stems. It blooms freely in my grounds when given a 
slight protection in winter. 

M. stellata. — Star Magnolia, Hall's Japan M. — A low-growing 
shrub, with pure white fragrant flowers, of a rather loose and 
irregular shape, but appearing in spring before those of any 
other species. 

MELiA, Linn. — Pride of India. 

A genus of handsome tropical or sub-tropical trees. Princi- 
pally evergreen, with large, handsome pinnate or doubly -pin- 
nate leaves. While there are no species native of the United 
States, there is one that was so early introduced into the 
Southern States, it has run wild, and become so fully natur- 



172 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



alized that some persons suppose it to be indigenous in the 
Gulf States. This species is 

Melia Azedarach. — China Tree ; or, Pride of India. — Leaves very 
long, doubly-pinnate, dark green, coming out early in spring. 
Flowers small, but in large axillary clusters, deliciously f ra- , 
grant. Fruit large as cherries, round, yellow when ripe, eaten 1 
with avidity by birds, especially by the robin in its migration 
southward in the autumn. A handsome, rapid-growing tree, ■ 
often reaching a hight of forty feet, and a stem eighteen inches ' 
in diameter. Wood of a reddish color, resembling some species 
of the ash, quite durable, and makes excellent fuel. It grows so 
rapidly that seedlings often reach a hight of ten to fifteen feet 
in three or four years. It thrives in dry soils, and is planted 
almost everywhere in the South as a shade tree, and is a univer- 
sal favorite. Not hardy north of Virginia. A native of Persia, 
but at what date introduced into this country is not known. 

MiMUSOPS, Linn. — Nasebitry. 

A small genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, with milky 
juice, principally natives of Tropical America, India and New 
Holland. Fruit of most of the species edible, at least so con-; 
sidered by the people where it is produced. One species indi- 
genous to the United States, the 

Mimnsops Sieberi, A. DC— Naseberry.— Leaves rigid, oblong, 
emarginate at the apex, rather broad or blunt at the base, on 
stout stems. Flowers small, white, among the clustered leaves 
on the ends of the branches. Fruit a roundish, many-seeded 
berry, about the eize of a nutmeg ; edible when fully ripe. A 
small tree at Key West, Florida, but in Jamaica it reaches a 
hight of forty to fifty feet, and the wood is considered one of 
the strongest and best in the island. 

MORUS, Tour. — Mulierry, 

A genus of only a few species from which a great number of 
varieties have originated. Flowers monoecious, the sterile and 
fertile in separate spikes. Fruit edible, usually oblong, some- 
what resembling in structure and form, the common black 
berry. Trees or shrubs with milky juice. We have but one 
or at most two, native species. 

Morns rubra, L. — Red Mulberry. — Leaves broad, heart-shaped 
serrate and rough above, and downy underneath. On youn 
shoots the leaves are variously lobed. Fruit dark red, turning t 



FOREST TREES. 



173 



purple when fully ripe. Wood yellow, very heavy and durable, 
valuable for fence posts, much used when obtainable for tool 
handles. Usually a small tree, but sometimes found sixty to 
seventy feet high, with a stem two feet in diameter. Found in 
no considerable abundance anywhere, but distributed over the 
country from Western Massachusetts and Vermont, west to the 
Rocky Mountains, and south to Florida, Texas and Mexico. 

M. microphylla, Buckley, is probably only a southern form or 
variety, with smaller and rougher leaves. Fruit small, sour 
and black, Texas, and westward to Arizona. 

FOREIG^q- SPECIES AKD VARIETIES. 

Morns alba, L. — White Mulberry. — Leaves heart-shaped, 
pointed, serrate, smooth and shining. Fruit white, sweet, but 
rather insipid. A tree early introduced into the United States, 
and is naturalized and run wild in the Eastern States. A low 
growing tree, but with stem from one to three feet in diameter. 
There are more than a dozen distinct varieties in cultivation. 
Among the oldest and best known, I may name the M, multi- 
caulis, supposed to be one of the best for feeding silk-worms. 
Rather more tender than the species, the latter being quite 
hardy in nearly all of our Northern States, while the former is 
often winter killed, even in the latitude of New York City. 
The Downing's Everbearing Mulberry is a seedUng of the multi- 
caulis, but with very large black fruit, of a rich, sprightly sub- 
acid flavor. M. alba, var. tartarica, has recently been highly ex- 
tolled as a timber tree, under the name of Russian Mulberry. 
It is a rapid growing tree, readily propagated by cuttings or 
seed, and is said to thrive in the dry soils of the western 
prairies, where it is quite extensively cultivated by the Men- 
nonites, who brought it with them from Russia, but the 
same tree has long been known in our Eastern States as the 
Tartarian Mulberry. The mulberries are handsome trees of 
rapid growth, although they seldom reach a large size. The 
leaves of the White Mulberry, and many of its varieties, have 
for ages been used for feeding the silk-worm in China and 
other countries. The larger-leaved varieties are preferred to 
the smaller for feeding the worm, and some are more tender 
and better adapted to this purpose than others. All the species 
and varieties of the mulberry put out their leaves late in 
spring. The West India Mulberry, M, tinctoria, yields the 
well known Fustic wood of commerce. 



174 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



MTRicA^ Linn. — Siceet Gale. 

A genus of small trees or shrubs, mostly evergreen, and the 
species are pretty widely distributed over the world. Flowers 
monoecious or dioecious, with both sexes in short, scaly catkins. 
Leaves usually fragrant, and the fruit a drupe-like nut. Of no 
special interest to the arboriculturist, further than the tallest 
species of the genus is a native of the United States. 

Myrka Calif orniea^ Cham. — Wax Myrtle. — ^Leaves evergreen, 
leathery, usually pubescent beneath, oblanceolate, two to four 
inches long, pointed. Fruit purple, thinly coated with grayish 
wax, and only about one eighth of an inch in diameter. Native 
of Northern California to Washington Territory. A tree thirty j 
to forty feet high, with a stem sometimes two feet in diameter. 
A dwarf species (M. Hartwegi, Watson), is found near Sacra- 
mento, and in other parts of California, but it is a low shrub. 
This genus is represented by several small shrubs in our East- 
em States, among the best known and most common, are the 
Bayberry (M. cerifera), and the Sweet Gale {M, Gale), the latter 
being also a native of Europe. 

MYRSii^E, L. — Florida Myrtle. 

Evergreen trees or shrubs, with mostly entire leaves, and 
regular monoecious, or dioecious white, or colored flowers. 
Fruit resembling small plums, commonly with one reddish 
seed or nut, concave at the base. The species are widely dis- 
tributed throughout the globe in tropical, or sub-tropical 
climates, we have one species. 

Myrsiac Rapanea, Roem. & Schult. — Florida Myrtle. — Leaves 
two to three inches long, thick, oblong-ovate, entire, narrowed at 
the base into a short petiole. Flowers small, white, and in 
clusters. Fruit less than a quarter of an inch in diameter. A 
small tree, sometimes twenty or more feet high in the Florida 
Keys, and through the West Indies to Brazil. 

NUTTALLiA, Terr. & Gray. 

A genus closely related to the Plum and Cherry, contaiuing 
only one species. Usually a shrub, with entire deciduous 
leaves, with white flowers, in loose drooping racemes, which 
appear with the branchlets from the same buds. 

Nuttallia ccrasiformis, Torr. & Gray.— Oso Berry. — Leaves 
broad, oblanceolate, sharp pointed, two to four inches long. 



FOREST TREES. 



175 



Flowers greenish- white, one fourth of an inch broad. Fruit 
blue-black, bitter, ripening in June and July. Usually a shrub, 
but in favorable locations reaching a hight of twenty feet. 
Coast Ranges of California and northward to Puget Sound. 

i^YSSA, L. — Sour Gum. 

A genus of North American deciduous trees, principally in 
swamps and low, moist soils. Flowers small, greenish, sterile 
ones numerous in clusters, the fertile, solitary or few in a bud. 
Fruit a one-seeded drupe, in some species edible. Usually 
propagated by seed or layers, but the wild plants can be ob- 
tained in abundance. 

Ji'yssa capltata, Walt. — Ogeechee Lime. — Leaves three to five 
inches long, oblong on short petioles, whitish beneath. Flowers 
below the leaves, the fertile ones solitary, on short stalks. 
Fruit about an inch long, oval, red, and the pulp of an agree- 
able, sub-acid flavor. The conserve known as the ''Ogeechee 
Lime," is prepared from this fruit. Swamps of Georgia and 
Florida, and westward. A tree thirty feet high, with very 
tough, cross-grained wood. 

N. Carolinianaj Poir. — Carolina Gum Tree. — Leaves from one 
to two inches long, broad, lanceolate, sometimes slightly heart- 
shaped at base. Fruit small, dark-blue. A large tree in South- 
ern swamps, with moderately firm, close-grained wood, very 
difficult to spHt, and for this reason is much used for hubs and 
similar purposes. The leaves turn to a brilliant crimson color 
in autumn, making these trees very conspicuous objects in the 
forests at that season. North Carolina to Florida in swamps 
and low grounds. 

]V. multiflora, Wang. — Tupelo, Pepperidge. — Leaves oval, 
rather thick, and dark-green, two to five inches long. Sterile 
flowers in loose clusters, fertile clusters long and slender, con- 
taining from three to eight flowers. Fruit ovoid, dark-blue, 
about a half an inch long. A large tree fifty to sixty feet high, 
with stem two feet in diameter. Wood tough, cross-grained, 
difficult to split, used for hubs and similar purposes. A hand- 
some ornamental tree, growing rapidly in moist soils, the 
branches spreading widely at right angles from the stem. 
Leaves change to a bright crimson in autumn. Common in 
low grounds from Vermont, New York, New Jersey, and 
southward to Florida, also in the Western States. 



176 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



]V. sylvaticaj Marsh.— Black Gum.— This is a doubtful species 
described by several botanists under different names, but 
Watson (in Botanical Index) considers it only a variety of the 
last. Michaux found it growing near Philadelphia, and further 
South on rather high and dry grounds, among oak and walnut 
trees. Leaves five or six inches long, alternate, oblong-oval. 
Fruit deep-blue. Wood fine-grained, but rather soft, very 
cross-grained. A large tree sixty to seventy feet high, with 
stem two feet in diameter. 

]V. imifloraj Wang. — Large Tupelo, Cotton Gum. — Leaves 
large, four to six inches long, ovate or oblong, sharp pointed, 
er^ .xre or sharply toothed, downy beneath. Fertile flowers 
solitary. Fruit ovate-oblong, dark-blue. A large tree in 
swamps, from Virginia southward. Wood cross-grained, light, 
and of little value. 

OLis'EYA, Gray. — Iron -Wood. 

A small tree belonging to the Leguminosae, bearing bean-like 
fruit, and pinnate leaves, resembling those of the Locust. Only 
one species. 

Olneya Tesota^ Gray. — Iron Wood. — Leaves composed of from 
five to seven pairs of wedge-shaped, oblong leaflets. Flowers 
pea-shaped, white or purphsh, three or four in a loose raceme. 
Fruit a rough, linear, oblong pod, about two inches long, con- 
taining one or two ovate seeds. This is the Arhol de hierro or 
Iron Wood of Arizona, and adjacent regions in Calif oraia. 

OSMANTHUS^ Benth. & Hook, olea^ Linn. 

A tree closely allied to the Olive {Olea Eiiropcea), and usually 
called the American Olive. Trees or shrubs with mostly entire 
leaves, and perfect flowers, but in some they are dioecious, and 
usually small, white, in cluster or panicles. One native 
species. 

Osmanthns Americanus. — Devil- wood.— Leaves oblong, lanceolate, 
smooth and shining, three to six inches long. Flowers in 
compound racemes, shorter than the leaves. Flowers small, 
white, and fragrant. Fruit ovoid, dark-purple, about the size 
of a pea, bitter and astringent. A small tree, with very hard, 
iron-like wood, seldom over twenty feet high. In moist woods 
from Southern Virginia to Florida. 



FOREST TKEES. 



177 



OSTRYA^ Micheli. — Hop-Hornbeam, 

A tree closely related to the common Beech tree, but with 
the fertile flowers numerous, in short terminal catkins, with 
small deciduous bracts, each enclosed in a sac-like involucre, 
which enlarges and forms an imbricated strobile, like that of 
the common Hop. Slender tree with very hard wood. 

Ostrya Virginica, Willd. — American Hop-Hornbeam, Iron-wood, 
Lever- wood. — Leaves oblong-ovate, taper pointed, very sharply 
and doubly serrate, downy beneath. Flowers minute, appear- 
ing with the leaves. Seeds in short imbricated catkins, as 
shown in figure 43, which are about one half the natural sL . . A 




Fio^. 43. — HOP- HORNBEAM. 

handsome tree, thirty to forty feet high, with straight stem, 
rarely more than a foot in diameter. Wood white, very hard 
and heavy, used for making beetles for splitting rails, mallets, 
mauls, and similar implements. Bark on old trees dark-brown, 
and furrowed, not smooth as in the closely allied Water Beech 
(Carpiniis). Seeds ripen in August in our Northern States, at 
which time the hop-like catkins containing them should be 
gathered and spread out to dry in the shade, until the seed can 
be rubbed or threshed out. A handsome tree, well worthy of 
extensive cultivation for its v^aluable timber. More or less 
common in Nova Scotia, Canada, and all of our Northern States, 
and in rich woods south to Florida. The European Horn- 
beam (0. vulgaris) Tesemhles our native species very closely, and 
is often planted for ornament. 



178 



PRACTICAL POBESTET. 




Fig. 44.— SOREEL TREE. 



FOREST TREES. 



179 



oxYDE^^DRUJkr. — Sorrel Tree. 

A beautiful little native tree belonging to the Heath Family, 
with leaves resembling those of the common peach tree, but a 
little larger. They have an acid taste, hence both the generic 
and common names refer to the sour taste of the leaves. There 
is only one species. 

Oxydecdrum arboreum, DC. — Sorrel Tree. — Leaves smooth, ob- 
long-lanceolate, pointed serrate, on slender petioles. Flowers 
small, white, in one-sided racemes as shown in fig. 44. The ra- 
cemes are clustered in loose panicles at the end of the branches, 
appearing late in spring. A rare tree in cultivation, probably 
because difficult to propagate, except from seed, and the seed- 
lings make a slow growth for the first few years. The leaves 
change to a briUiant Kght crimson color in early autumn, and 
remain on the trees until cut by severe frosts. The wood is 
quite hard and fine-grained, but has not been sufficiently abun- 
dant to attract much attention. A small tree, but sometimes 
reaches a hight of fifty or sixty feet. Hardy in my grounds 
and probably farther north. 

PARKIIJ^SOKIA, Liun. 

A small genus of about eight species, one-half of which are 
natives of North America, but in the warmer regions. Leaves 
large and much divided, the leaflets bipinnate. Fruit, long bean- 
like pods, containing several seeds. 

Farkinsoiiia acukata. Linn. — Leaves twelve to eighteen inches 
long, with small, but numerous spiny leaflets. Flowers yellow, 
in axillary racemes, three to six inches long. Pods two to ten 
inches long, containing from one to five seeds, the pods being 
contracted or compressed between the seeds. A small tree in 
Texas, and through Mexico. Wood hard. 

P. floridnm, Watson. — Somewhat larger leaflets than the last, 
with axillary racemes, the pods narrow with acute margins on 
the ventral side, seeds also thinner. A small tree on the Eio 
^ Grande, Southern Texas. 

P. niicrophylla) Torr. — Leaflets few and pinnate, quite short, 
four to six leaflets in each. Flowers deep straw-color, the upper 
petals white. Pods two to three inches long, and one to three- 
seeded. Southern Arizona. 

P. Torre yana, Watson. — Leaves composed of two to three pairs 
of leaflets, oblong, narrowed towards the base. Flowers in long 



180 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. ™ 

racemes at the ends of the branches, bright yellow. Pods two to 
three inches long, containing two to eight seeds. The pods but 
slightly contracted between the seeds. A small tree twenty to 
thirty feet high, with light-green, smooth bark. This is the 
Falo verde of the Mexicans or Green-bark Acacia. Wood bard, 
and much valued for fuel. 

PAULOWNiA, Siebold. 

A noble Japanese tree introduced into this country nearly 
forty years ago, and has long been a popular ornamental tree 
on account of its large tropical-looking leaves, and handsome 
fragrant flowers. Grows freely from cuttings of the roots or 
seed. There is but one species. 

PauloM nia imperialis. — Imperial Paulownia. — Leaves large, 
heart-shaped, resembling those of the catalpa, but usually much 
larger, and on young, thrifty shoots, they are frequently one to 
two feet broad. Flowers trumpet-shaped, in large, upright 
branching panicles, violet color, and fragrant. A very rapid 
growing tree when young, but after reaching a hight of twenty 
or thirty feet, the branches spread laterally to a great distance, 
forming a rather broad, flat head. Hardy at the North, but in 
the latitude of Boston and Central New York, the flower buds 
are frequently killed in winter. 

PERSE A, Gaertn. — Bed Bay, 

A small genus of evergreen trees and shrubs of the Laurel 
Family. Flowers greenish or white, and the fruit a small ovid 
drupe. Two species natives of our Southern States, and one in 
the West Indies. 

Persea Carolinensis, Nees. — Red Bay. — Leaves oblong or lanceo- 
late, smooth, two to three inches long, deep-green above, 
whitish beneath. Flowers silky, in roundish clusters, on short 
stems. Fruit deep blue. A large tree, forty to seventy feet high 
in rich, shady woods of North Carolina to Florida, and west- 
ward along the coast to Texas, Wood reddish or rose-color, 
hard, strong, durable, and susceptible of a high polish. 

P. Catcsbyana. — Michx. — Leaves smooth, lanceolate-oblong, 
sharp-pointed. Flowers minute, white, and somewhat downy 
within. Fruit small, black, on ciub-shaped stalks. A small 
tree, but more often a low shrub. Southern Florida. 

PINCKNEYA, Michx. — Georgia Baric. 

A genus of one, or at most, two species of small evergreen 
trees, closely related to the Cinchona, which yields the well 



FOREST TREES. 



181 



known Peruvian bark. First made known by the elder Micbaux, 
who found the trees growing on the St. Mary River in Florida in 
1791, and carried seeds and plants to Charleston, S. C, and 
planted them in his garden near that city, where they liad 
reached a liight of twenty-five feet in 1807, as stated by his son 
in his great work, North American Sylvia, vol. I, p. 180. 

Pinckncya pubens, Michx. — Georgia Bark.— Leaves large, oval 
or oblong, smooth above, hoary pubescent underneath. Flowers 
tubular, an inch and a half long, white, with broad stripes of 
pink on the tube and in the center of the re volute petals. Fruit 
a globose papery, two-celled, capsule^ opening at the top and 
containing numerous small seeds. A small tree with a wide 
spreading top, seldom more than twenty-five feet high, or stem 
over six inches in diameter. Wood very soft, and of no value, 
but the bark has been used more or less as a substitute for 
Peruvian bark, as it contained similar bitter tonic properties. 
Found wild on the marshy banks of streams in South Carolina 
and Florida. 

piRUS, Linn. — Apple, Pear, Etc. 

An extensive genus, containing about forty species, princi- 
pally in the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and America. 
The apple, pear, crab apple, quince, service tree, mountain ash, 
and their many varieties, are all included in this genus. As 
there are few trees among them worthy of the arboriculturist's 
attention, I shall omit all except those inhabiting the United 
States. 

Pirus Americana^ DC. — American Mountain Ash. — Leaves com- 
posed of thirteen to fifteen lanceolate, taper-pointed serrate 
leaflets. Flowers white, in large, flat cymes or clusters. Fruit 
in large clusters, not larger than peas, bright-scarlet, remaining 
on the tree until winter. A handsome ornamental tree, twenty 
to thirty feet high, reaching a very high northern latitude, even 
being found in Greenland and Labrador, and throughout the 
Canadas, all of our more Northern States, and southward along 
the mountains to North Carolina. There are several cultivated 
varieties of this species, also a very large number of the Euro- 
pean Mountain Ash (P. aucuparia), which may be found de- 
scribed in nurserymen's catalogues. 

P. aiis;nstifoIia, Ait. — Narrow-leaved Crab Apple. — Leaves lan- 
ceolate or oblong, acute at the base, serrate. Flowers few in a 
cluster, rose-color, very fragrant. Fruit very acid. A small 



183 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



tree, said to be found in Pennsylvania and southward, but I am 
inclined to think not very common, as I have failed to find it 
in cultivation, or obtain specimens from my correspondents 
who reside in the regions where it is said to be indigenous. 

P. arbntifoliaj Linn.— Choke Berry. — Leaves oblong or obovate, 
finely serrate. Flowers white or tinged with purple. Fruit 
pear-shaped or round, red, sometimes purple. There are several 
wild varieties, one with black fruit. This is the Aronia arhuti- 
folia of Ell. A small tree or large shrub, sometimes ten or 
twelve feet high. In swamps South. 

P. concraria; Linn. — American Crab Apple. — Leaves simple on 
long, slender petioles, ovate or roundish, very smooth, and two 
to three inches long. Flowers few in a cluster, rose-color, and 
very fragrant. Fruit an inch or more in diameter, rather 
broad and flat. Very acid and astringent ; usually of yellowish- 
green color. A small tree, but in rich alluvial soils sometimes 
twenty-five feet high. Wood light-colored, but hard and fine- 
grained. A handsome ornamental tree. Central New York, 
west to Wisconsin, south along the mountains, and in the Mis- 
sissippi Valley. 

P. rivularisj Dougl. — Oregon Crab Apple.— Leaves simple ovate- 
lanceolate, acute or acuminate, one to three inches long, some- 
times three-lobed, more or less woolly-pubescent, as well as the 
young branches. Flowers small, white. Fruit red or yellow, 
about a half inch long. A small tree twenty to twenty-five 
feet high. In low grounds in Cahfornia and northward to 
Alaska. 

P. sambucifolia^ Cham. & Schlect.— Western Mountain Ash.— 
Leaves pinnate, and leaflets in four to six pairs, oblong-acute, 
sharply serrate. Flowers white, like those of the Eastern 
Mountain Ash. Fruit red, round, and about a quarter of an 
inch in diameter. A small shrub. In the Sierra Nevada, and 
north to Sitka. 

pisciDiA^ Linn. — Jamaica Dogivood. 

A small genus of tropical trees with unequal pinnate leaves, 
and pea-shaped flowers in terminal or axillary spikes. Fruit a 
bean-like pod, contracted between the seeds. We have one spe- 
cies. 

Piscidia Erythrinaj L. — Jamaica Dogwood. — Leaflets seven to 
nine, oblong-ovate, abruptly pointed. Young branches, leaves 
and flower-stalks silky and whitish, but becoming smooth with 



FOREST TREES. 



183 



age. Flower panicles, axillary or terminal, white with red 
veins. Leaves deciduous. Pods about two inches long. Nuttall 
says the wood is heavy, hard and resinous, light-brown, rather 
coarse-grained, but durable. A small tree in Southern Florida 
and through the West Indies. 

PISTACIA; Will. — Pistacia Nut, Etc, 

A small genus of dioecious sub-tropical trees, mostly natives 
of Southern Europe. One, the P. officinalis, is extensively cul- 
tivated in Sicily, for its fruit known as the Pistacia nut. 
Another, the P. Terebenthus, yields the Cypress turpentine, 
while the P. lentiscus produces a mastick, much used among 
the Armenian women for cleaning the teeth and perfuming the 
breath. One species in North America. 

Pistacia Mexicana, HBK. — Mexican Pistacia. — Leaves com- 
posed of from five to ten pairs of small, oblong-ovate leaflets, 
on a slightly winged leaf -stalk. Flowers dioecious and without 
petals, in axillary clusters or panicles. Fruit small, somewhat 
compressed. A small tree in Western Texas, Southern Cali- 
fornia, and throu.2:h Mexico. 

piTHECOLOBiDM, Martin. — Cat^s Claiv. 

The genus Inga, from which the Pithecolohiums have been 
separated, is an extensive one, and the species may be truthfully 
said to encircle the entire globe in tropical climates. They are 
mosUy trees of large size. They are all evergreen, with acacia- 
like foliage. Fruit a legume or bean-like pod. We have one 
species, the 

Pithecolobinm Fnguis-Cati, Benth. — Cat's Claw. — Branches 
usually spiny, but sometimes unarmed. Leaves bi-pinnate, leaf- 
lets four ; thin and obliquely obovate. Flowers yellow in glo- 
bose-heads, in a loose raceme. Pods spirally twisted, containing 
five to six white seeds. A small tree fifteen to twenty feet 
high in Southern Florida and the West Indies. 

PLANERA, Gmelin. — Planer Tree, 

A small genus of deciduous trees, closely related to the elms, 
but with nut-like wingless fruit. All are handsome ornamental 
trees. 

Planera aquatlca, Gmel. — Planer Tree.— Leaves from an inch to 
an inch and a half long, ovate, in short petioles, sharp-pointed, 
serrate, with a rough surface. Flowers in small clusters, appear- 



184 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



ing before the leaves. Seed ovate, covered with warty scales. 
A small tree forty to fifty feet high, in low, raoist soils, in 
North Carolina and southward. Not quite hardy north of Phila- 
delphia, except in very favorable sheltered situations. The 
Japanese species or Kiaka Elm (P. acuminata) is a far more 
hardy and robust growing tree than our native species. It has 
large, glossy, smooth leaves, on red stems. The young shoots 
are also red. A handsome and desirable ornamental tree. The 
Caucasian Planera, P. joarvifolia, also thrives very well in New 
York and vicinity. 

PLATAKUS, Tour. — Buttoiiwood, Sycamore, Etc. 

A genus of about a half dozen species, all but one inhabiting 
North America. Large trees, with very close, smooth bark, 
which, as the stem and branches enlarge, breaks up and falls 
off in large flakes. The flowers are in dense, globose, naked, 
unisexual heads, mingled with minute hairy scales, forming a 
dry, rough, one-celled, and one-seeded fruit, pendulous, and 
usually remaining on the trees until late in winter. All the 
species and varieties may be readily propagated with ripe wood 
cuttings of either one or two-year-old wood, but they should 
always be planted in a moist soil. 

Platanus occidentalis, Linn. — Buttonwood, Sycamore. —Leaves 
large, six to ten inches broad, roundish heart-shaped, but deeply 
and angularly lobed and toothed, covered when young with 
dense whitish down, but soon becoming smooth. The pendu- 
lous fruit about an inch in diameter. One of the largest trees 
found east of the Rocky Mountains, often from seventy-five to 
a hundred feet high, with stem ten to fifteen feet in diameter. 
The stems of large specimens often becoming hollow, only a 
shell of three or four inches in thickness remaining sound. 
These old hollow trunks were utilized by the early settlers in 
Western New York, Ohio, and Indiana, for grain bins, smoke- 
houses, and similar purposes, and then sometimes the pioneer 
and his family found shelter in them, for it was an easy matter 
to cut down one of the large, hollow trees, and then divide it 
into sections of the required size with saw or axe. A few 
slabs or pieces of bark, or slab-like sections of the same tree, 
made a good roof or cover. Wood brownish, cross-grained, 
cannot be split, and for this reason is in demand for meat- 
blocks and similar purposes. Decays quickly if exposed to the 
weather. Common in all of our Northern States, and southward 



FOREST TREES. 



185 



to Florida. It grows to a large size, and is very abundant in 
the bottom lands along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. 

P. racemcsa, Nutt. — California Buttonwood. — Leaves very 
variable, densely downy when young, broadly heart-shaped in 
outline, three to five-lobed, usually above the middle, lobes 
sharp-pointed, entire, or coarsely toothed. The leaves often a 
foot broad, and sometimes two feefc on young, thrifty sprouts. 
Fertile heads two to seven in a string, a necklace-like spike. 
Fruit an inch in diameter. A common tree from the Valley of 
the Sacramento to Southern California. Bark very white, wood 
brittle, but said to receive a good polish and to be more durable 
than that of the Eastern species. The largest tree, whose 
measurement has been reported, is growing in Santiago Canyon, 
Los Angeles County, and was found to be twenty-nine feet and 
seven inches in circumference, but the trees rarely reach a hight 
of a hundred feet, or more than six feet in diameter (Botany of 
California, Vol. II.) Platamis Wrightii, Watson, is closely allied 
to the above, and probably Mexican, but said to be found in 
Southeastern Arizona. 

FOREIGN SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

The Oriental Plane tree, or Sycamore, is better known in culti- 
vation than our native species, because it was early introduced 
and more extensively propagated by our nurserymen. By some 
persons it is considered more desirable as an ornamental tree, as it 
has a more graceful habit. The branches are not quite as rigid, 
but often curved downward. In some instances it is decidedly 
drooping, with the ends curving upward. Some authors recog- 
nize two Asiatic species, the P. orientalis, Linn, and P. cuneaia, 
Willdenow, but it is doubtful if they are distinct species. There 
are many varieties in cultivation, among which I will name 
P. iimhraculifera, a dwarf, tortuous growing variety. P. acer- 
folia, the maple-leaved. P. nepalensis, with cut leaves and a 
pyramidal habit. P. liriodendri folia has leaves resembling the 
Tulip Tree, raised by a nurseryman near Meton, Italy. P. quin- 
quelobata, a variety with leaves divided into five-lobes. P. as- 
plenifola, the leaves of which are very evenly and symmetrically 
divided. AU the species and varieties of Platanus are hardy 
in our Northern States, at least so far as they have been tested. 

POPULUS, Tour. — Poplar, Aspen, 
A genus of about twenty species of deciduous trees, one-haLf 
the number natives of North America, and the others in- 



186 



PKACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



habitants of the Old World, mainly in the northern or colder 
regions. Flowers minute, in drooping catkins, on a cup-shaped 
disk, usually appearing before the leaves. Seeds minute, usual- 
ly furnished with a long tuft of cottony down at one end. 
Trees of light, soft wood, of little value except for fuel, and 
for this reason only prized where better kinds are scarce or un- 
attainable. They are usually propagated from cuttings, as 
most of the species can be rapidly multiplied in this way. The 
rapidity with which some of the larger species grow, has made 
them very popular for planting in the prairie regions of the 
West, and while they have, no doubt, served a good purpose, 
they are at the same time far inferior to many other kinds of 
our indigenous forest trees. Some of the species have been de- 
scribed under quite a number of different names, all of which 
will be found elsewhere, only one being employed in connection 
with my remarks on each. 

Populns angustlfoliaj James. — Willow-leaved Poplar. — Leaves 
three to four inches long, taper-pointed, slightly heart-shaped 
at base, serrate, smooth, shining, bright green. Branches rather 
slender with smooth bark. Usually a stocky tree with a broad, 
open, rather graceful head, forty to sixty feet high, with stem 
two to three feet in diameter. Bark on old trees tliick and 
deeply furrowed. Wood light-colored, soft and spongy, of little 
value. A handsome tree, resembling a Willow more than the 
ordinary Poplars of the East. Common in the canyons of Ari- 
zona, Northern New Mexico, Colorado, and northward to the 
Columbia River. 

P. balsamifera. Linn. — Balsam Poplar, Tacamahac, Balm of 
Gilead. — Leaves ovate, gradually tapering and pointed, some- 
times heart-shaped, finely serrate, smooth on both sides. 
Branches round, buds large and covered with a fragrant resin- 
ous matter, which appears to become volatile on the approach 
of warm weather, and is widely diffused. There are several 
natural local varieties of this species, among which are var. P. 
candicans, Gray, P. nigra, Catesby, etc., etc. A tall, rather 
pyramidal-shaped tree, along the banks of streams from Wis- 
consin to New England, and northward to the Arctic regions. 
A rare tree in forests except far north, but has long been a 
favorite ornamental tree for planting near dwellings, probably 
on account of its odoriferous buds, which are supposed to 
possess valuable medicinal properties, and are often gathered . 
and used for making an ointment that has a good reputation 



FOREST TREES. 



187 



among the people in the country in the treatment of wounds, 
bruises, rheumatism, and tumors. The name, Tacamahac," 
was given this tree on account of the resemblance of the bal- 
samic coating of the buds to the genuine Tacamahaca, or res- 
inous product of Fagara octandra. 

P. Fremonti, Watson. — Fremont's Poplar.— Leaves broadly tri- 
angular, or somewhat kidney-shaped, with a broad, acute 
point, with only a few serratures in each side. Leaf -stalks one 
to two-and-a-half inches long. Fruiting catkins three or four 
inches long ; seeds small, white. A large tree, with gray, 
cracked bark, that on the young branches yellowish. Twigs 
round, smooth, not winged or angled. Along the Sacramento 
River in California, and westward to Utah. Var. Wislizeni, 
Watson, has sharply acuminate leaves, with very slender pistil- 
late catkins, two to six inches long. This is the P. monilifera, 
Torr., in Botany of the Mexican Boundary Survey, and foimd 
further south than the species. 

P. grandid^nta^a^ Michx. — Large-toothed Aspen. — Leaves three 
to five inches long, roundish-ovate, with large, irregular, sinu- 
ate teeth, and when young, densely covered with white, silky 
wool, but becoming smooth on both sides. A large tree sixty 
to eighty feet high, with rather smoothisli gray bark. Wood 
light and soft, and of late years used for paper pulp. Common 
in the north, from Nova Scotia, Canadas, and the Northern 
States, but rare southward except along the Alleghanies. 

P. hctmpliylla, L. — Downy-leaved Poplar. — Leaves heart- 
shaped or roundish-ovate, with obtuse, incurved teeth ; white, 
woolly when young, but becoming smooth, except on the ele- 
vated veins beneath. Branches round. A large tree seventy 
or eighty feet high, not common or very abundant. New Eng- 
land to Illinois ; southward to Arkansas, and eastward to North 
Carolina. 

P. niDniUfcra, Ait. — Cottonwood, Carolina Poplar. — Twigs and 
smaller branches thick, smooth, but sharply-angled or winged. 
Leaves large, six to nine inches long, broadly heart-shaped, 
smooth, sharply serrate, with slightly incurved teeth. Fertile 
catkins very long, with scales finely fringed, but not hairy ; a 
very large tree, often a hundred feet high, with stem four or 
five feet in diameter. Wood soft, light, but burns rapidly 
when seasoned, but gives out little heat. A common tree in 
moist, low grounds, from New England to Colorado and Idaho, 



188 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



and southward to Florida, but most abundant in the Mississippi 
Valley. This species has been extensively planted on the prair- 
ies, and is still highly recommended as a forest tree, but its 
merits consist mainly in the facility with which it is propagat- 
ed, and rapidity of its growth, the wood being very inferior, 
even for fuel, to some of the other species of this genus. There 
is a handsome golden-leaved variety of this species, also a weej)- 
ing variety, both handsome little trees. 

P. tremuloides, Michx. — Quaking Asp, American Aspen. — 
Leaves roundish, heart-shaped, with a sharp point, and some- 
what regular teeth, smooth ou both sides, with downy margins. 
The leaf -stalks long and slender, slightly flattened on the sides, 
which probably accounts for the constant trembling of the 
leaves, when there is the slightest breeze. A common and 
well-known tree, both in forests and under cultivation. A 
widely distributed species, extending entirely across the Con- 
tinent, through British America to the Pacific, extending north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean. Usually in dense groups on moist 
soils, on high elevations in our mountain ranges. I have found 
large groves of this species in the Rocky Mountains at an 
elevation of ten thousand feefc. A medium-sized tree, fifty to 
seventy-five feet, with stem twelve to twenty-four inches in 
diameter. Bark smooth, hard, and thin, whitish on the out- 
side, yellow within, quite brittle. Wood white, soft, but of 
a firm texture, somewhat resembling that of the White Birch, 
makes good fuel, and a Quacking Asp log will hold fire longer 
than any other kind of wood I ever tried while camping in the 
Rocky Mountain regions. The Indians are well acquainted 
with this property of the Quacking Asp, and in moving their 
camps, they use a brand or coals of this tree for taking fire 
from the old to the new. It is also a favorite tree with the 
beavers for building their dams. 

P. trichocarpa, Torr. and Gray. — California Balsam Poplar. — 
Leaves heart-shaped, or ovate to lanceolate, scalloped with 
rounded teeth, two to four inches long ; stalks an inch or two 
long ; fertile catkins five or six inches long. Seeds nearly 
white. A large tree in California, from San Diego northward 
to British Columbia. In Washington Territory, it is said to 
grow nearly one hundred feet high, with stem three to six feet 
in diameter. In low valleys and canyons near streams. 



FOEEST TREES. 



189 



FOREIGN SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

I do not know of any species or varieties of the exotic Pop- 
lars, that are of any economic value, although there are a few- 
worthy of cultivation as ornamental trees. The two foreign 
species best known in this country, are : 

Popnlus alba, — Abele Tree, or Silver Poplar. — A large, rapid- 
growing tree, native of Europe, with large-lobed leaves, green 
above and silvery white beneath. A rather handsome tree, but 
F. decided nuisance, owing to the great abundance of suckers, 
which come up almost constantly from the roots. There are 
several varieties of this species, but all have the same habit, 
and for this reason are not to be recommended, except for 
planting in locations where the suckers will not interfere with 
the growth of other kinds of plants. If grafted on stocks of 
species that do not throw up suckers, the Silver-leaved Poplars 
might be admitted into grounds of Umited extent. 

P. dilatata, or fastigiata. — Lombardy Poplar. — A century ago this 
was a favorite tree for planting near churches, cemeteries, and 
dwellings, but of late it is seldom employed, except to give 
V9.riety of form in arranging the trees planted in large parks 
and pleasure grounds. 

?• nigra. — Europaan Black Poplar. — Has wide, spreading 
branches, with very large leaves, and very sticky or glutinous 
buds. 

P. suaveolens. — This species is from Central Asia, and was in- 
troduced by Dr. Kegel, director of the Imperial Gardens at St. 
Petersburg, Russia. — It possesses a very agreeable aromatic 
odor ; hence the specific name. This is very evident when the 
buds are rubbed between one's fingers. 

There is a handsome weeping variety of this (P. nigra pendu- 
la), that is propagated by grafting high upon strong stocks of 
some erect young species. In addition I may name the Weep- 
ing Grecian Poplar (P, grceca pendula). The Curled-leaved 
Poplar (P. crispa). Several additional species and varieties 
have been introduced from Europe and Asia, and may be 
found described in nurserymen's catalogues. 

PROSOPis, Linn. — Mesqiiit, Screio Bean, 

A genus of nearly twenty species of tropical-evergreen, 
spiny trees, closely allied to the acacias, having pinnate leaves, 
pea-shaped flowers, and fruit a bean-like pod, containing sev- 



190 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



eral seeds. About a dozen species inhabit South America, and 
northward to Mexico, two only extending into the United 
States. 

Prosopis julifloraj DC. — Honey Mesquit, Algaroba. — Leaves 
composed of from six to thirty pairs of short oblong, or linear 
leaflets, a half inch to an inch and a half long. Flowers very 
minute, greenish-yellow, in cylindrical spikes. Pods six inches 
or more in length, straight, or somewhat curved, contracted 
between the seeds. These pods, at certain stages of ripeness, 
aie pulpy, and the pulp is quite sweet and sugary. Branches 
and twigs armed with short, strong spines. In figure 45, is 
shown a branch of Mesquit with leaves, flowers, and a pod, of 
nearly natural size. The Mexicans and Indians make use of 
the bean, out of which they form a kind of meal called pinole, 
and although of a sweet, nauseous taste to the civilized palate, 
it is considered wholesome. These beans are also fed to horses, 
cattle, and they are quite a luxury to the Donkey or Mexican 
Burro. The tree exudes a clear gum, very much like Gum Ara- 
bic, for which it may some day become a substitute, at least 
for many purposes. The Mesquit is a small tree, seldom grow- 
ing more than thirty feet high, and more often it is a stragglmg 
shrub. Sap-wood yellowish, heart-wood reddish-brown, very 
hard and durable, making a most excellent fuel, and for this 
purpose superior to the best hickory, and has long been em- 
ployed in smelting furnaces in Mexico and Arizona. It is 
found on the plains of Western Texas, New Mexico, Southern 
Colorado, Southern California, and southward through Mexico. 

P. pubescenS) Benth. — TorniUa, Screw-pod Mesquit. — Leaflets 
in five to eight pairs, oblong, very short. Flower spikes one to 
two inches long. Pod thick, spirally twisted, with numerous 
turns, forming a narrow, straight cylinder one to two inches 
long, pulpy within. The pods of this species are also ground 
into meal by the Indians, and fed green or when nearly ripe to 
their ponies. A shrub or small tree, twenty to thirty feet high. 
Wood similar to the last. In San Diego, California, near Fort 
Mohave, and east to New Mexico, and southward through 
Mexico. 

PRUKUS, Tour. — Plum and Cherry, 

An extensive genus of about eighty species, distributed over 
the northern hemisphere, mainly in temperate climates. The 
genus includes many of our best known, and best cultivated 




Fig. 45.— MESQUIT TREE. 



193 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



fruits, the Plum, Cherry, Sloe, Cherry-laurel, Peach, Nectarine, 
Apricot, etc. There are about twenty species indigenous to 
North America, mostly trees or shrubs, with deciduous, alter- 
nate leaves. Flowers composed of a campanulate or turbinate, 
five- cleft calyx, deciduous. Petals five, spreading, usually 
white or but slightly colored, 

Prunus Americana, Marshall. — Wild Plum. — Leaves ovate, or 
somewhat obovate, pointed, coarsely or doubly serrate, quite 
smooth. Fruit roundish, oval, yellow or red, one half to an 
inch in diameter, having a flattened stone with broad margins. 
Fruit is quite variable in flavor, sometimes pleasant, but with 
a tough, rather bitter skin. There are a large number of im- 
proved cultivated varieties of this species. A small, thorny tree, 
seldom over twenty feet high. Wood of a reddish color, and 
quite hard. Common in low, moist soils, from British Amer- 
ica to Florida, and westward to the Rocky Mountains. 

P. Andersoni, Gray. — Anderson Cherry. — A low shrub, only 
two or three feet high, with solitary, rose-colored flowers, a 
half inch broad, fruit small, and thin fleshed, with stone com- 
pressed, sharply angled on one side, and furrowed on the other, 
resembhng a small peach stone. In foot hills of Northwestern 
Nevada. 

P. Caroliniana, Ait. — Mock Orange, Cherry-Laurel, — Leaves 
thick and leathery, evergreen, smooth and glossy, ovate-lance- 
olate, acute, mostly entire. Flowers in short racemes, white. 
Fruit ovoid, soon becoming dry and black, stone round. A 
tree sometimes thirty or forty feet high. Wood reddish, fine- 
grained, but brittle. North Carolina south, and westward to 
Texas. 

P. Chicasa, Michx. — Chickasaw Plum. — Leaves thin, lanceo- 
late, or oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, smooth, and minutely 
serrate, with teeth incurved. Flowers on short stalks. Fruit 
round, yellowish-red, of an agreeable flavor. Several improved 
varieties are in cultivation. A thorny shrub or small tree, 
seldom over fifteen feet high. Native habitat not positively 
identified, but has become naturalized in old fields and thickets 
in both the Eastern and Western States, as well as in the 
Southern, where it is supposed to be indigenous. 

P. demissa, Walpers. — ^Wild Cherry. — Leaves ovate, or oblong- 
ovate, usually broadest above the middle, abruptly pointed, 
rounded or heart-shaped at base. Flowers white, in terminal 



rOREST TREES. 



193 



racemes, appearing after the leaves. Fruit small, round, purp- 
lish-black, or red, sweet and edible, but somewhat astringent. 
An erect, slender shrub, three to twelve feet high. San Diego 
northward to the Columbia River, and eastward to the 
Locky Mountains. I found this species with several natural 
varieties growing in the canyons of New Mexico, at an eleva- 
tion of seven or eight thousand feet. The fruit on some plants 
are quite small and black, on others near by large or nearly 
a half inch in diameter, and of a bright red color, and produced 
in long, drooping racemes. I have some very promising seed- 
lings of the large red variety, which I hope to fruit soon. 

P. emarginataj Walpers. — California Cherry.— Leaves oblong- 
obovate to oblanceolate, one to three inches long, narrowed to 
a short petiole, with one or more glands near the base. Flowers 
six to twelve in a cluster. Fruit round, black, about one-third 
of an inch long, very bitter and astringent. A small shrub four 
to eight feet high. 

Var. mollis, Brewer, is said to be a much taller-growing, 
reaching a hight of twenty-five feet, mostly in open forests in 
Northern Cahfornia, Oregon and Washington Territory. 

P. fascicttlata, Gray. — Dwarf Cherry. — Leaves small, a half- 
inch long, in bundles or clustered, obtuse or acutish, with very 
short stalks. Fruit very small, hairy or velvety skin ; pulp 
thin, stone acute at both ends, smooth and scarcely margined. 
A small, much- branched shrub, two or three feet high. In 
Southern Sierra Nevada, Utah and Arizona. 

P. ilicifolia, Walp. — Evergreen or Holly-leaved Cherry. — 
Leaves thick and rigid, shining above, broadly-ovate, obtuse or 
acute, somewhat heart-shaped at base, spinosely toothed, an 
inch or two long. Flowers small in racemes, as shown in fig. 
46. Fruit large, half an inch in diameter or more, usually red, 
but often dark purple or black. Pulp acid and astringent, but 
pleasant flavored. The bark is gray, rather rough. Wood close- 
grained, tough and of a reddish color. A large and handsome 
evergreen shrub in the Coast Ranges of California, from San 
Francisco to San Diego and Western Arizona. 

P. maritinia, Wang. — Beach Plum. — Leaves ovate or oval, 
finely serrate, soft, velvety underneath. Flowers white, pro- 
duced in great abundance. Fruit globular, dark purple, about 
a half inch in diameter, edible and rather pleasant flavored. 
Under cultivation, the fruit becomes much larger than in the 
9 



194 



PRACTICAL FORESTKY. 



wild state. A low, straggnng, thorny shrub, six to ten feet 
high, along the sea-beach from Massachusetts, southward to 
Virginia. A handsome ornamental shrub that thrives inland, 
and in dry, sandy soils, as well as on the sea-coast. 
P. PennsylYaiiica, L. — Wild Red Cherry. — Leaves oblong-lanceo- 




Yigr, 46. — ^HOLLT-LEAVED CHERRT. 

late, pointed, finely serrate, shiny, green and smooth on both 
sides. Flowers many in a cluster, on long stems. Fruit round, 
light red-, quite small, pulp thin and quite acid. A small tree, 



FOREST TREES. 



195 



twenty to thirty feet high in rocky woods, often taking posses- 
sion of abandoned woodlands, or those from which the trees have 
been destroyed by fires or tornadoes. This species of wild 
cherry has been recommended as a stock for the cultivated va- 
rieties ; but I am not aware that it has been used to any con- 
siderable extent by nurserymen. A common tree far to the 
north, and along the mountains southward to North Carolina. 

?• pnmila, L. — Dwarf or Sand Cherry. — Leaves obovate-lanceo- 
late, tapering to the base, somewhat toothed near the apex. 
Flowers small, white, few in a cluster. Fruit one-fourth to a 
half -inch in diameter, dark red. Flesh of a sub-acid or rather 
insipid taste. A low spreading or prostrate shrub, with many 
slender stems. A rather unproductive shrub in cultivation, but 
wonderfully prolific when growing in the sands along the 
shores of our northern lakes and ponds. Plants of this species 
have often been offered for sale by tree-peddlers, in fact, large 
numbers have been sold under such names as Utah Cherry, 
Dwarf Cherry, etc., but it is not worth cultivating except as a 
curiosity. It is found wild in Massachusetts, and westward to 
Lake Superior. 

P« serotina, Ehrh.— Wild Black Cherry. — Leaves oblong, taper- 
pointed, serrate, with incurved short teeth ; rather thick, 
smooth, and shining above. Flowers in long pendulous racemes. 
Fruit purplish-black, slightly bitter, but with a pleasant vinous 
taste. Wood light red, close-grained, easily worked, and long 
known as one of our most valuable native woods for various 
kinds of cabinet work. A large tree, sixty feet high and over, 
with stem three to four feet in diameter. Once very abundant 
in our Northern States, but trees of large size are becoming 
quite scarce. It is found in forests as far north as Hudson's Bay, 
and south to Florida, and west to Texas, and northward in the 
Valley of the Mississippi to Iowa. 

P. subcordata, Benth.— California Plum. — Leaves ovate, heart- 
shaped, or wedge-shaped at base, obtuse or acute, sharply and 
finely serrate. Young branches and leaves pubescent in spring, 
becoming smooth in summer. Fruit about three-fourths of an 
inch long, red, and edible ; stone acutely edged on one side. A 
scraggy shrub, four to ten feet high. California and Oregon in 
dry, rocky hills. 

P. nmbellata. — Ell. — Leaves thin, ovate-lanceolate, acute at 
both ends, sometimes the upper ones are roimded at the base ; 



196 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



finely and sharply serrate, smooth or soft-downy beneath. 
Fruit round, nearly a half -inch in diameter, dark-purplish or 
black, acid and slightly bitter. This species may be only a 
southern variety of our northern Beech Plum (P. rnaritima), 
A shrub or small tree in light, sandy soils. South Carolina and 
Florida. 

Of the foreign species and varieties, there are such a vast 
number, that I cannot afford the space that would be required 
to mention them all, however briefly, besides they are mostly 
fruit or small ornamental trees of no especial interest to the 
Ijractical forester. The common Sweet Cherry of our gardens 
is descended from the Primus Cerasus of Europe, or may be 
Asia, as its native country is not positively known, for it has 
run wild all over Europe, as well as in our Eastern States. The 
sweet varieties are separated in a class by themselves, under the 
general name of Bigarreau cherries, while the more dwarf and 
acid varieties are called Morellos. There are many handsome 
ornamental varieties of each, both weeping, double-fiovvering. 
China, Japan, Nepal, the Himalayas, and various countries in 
Southern as well as Northern Europe, have given us numer- 
ous species and varieties of the genus. 

QUERCUS, Linn^ — Oah. 

An extensive genus of nearly two hundred and fifty species, 
distributed throughout the temperate regions of Asia, Europe, 
and North America. It includes both evergreen and deciduous 
trees and shrubs, with alternate, simple, or pinnately-veined 
leaves. Scaminate flowers in slender, drooping catkins. Pis- 
tillate flowers, solitary, in clusters, or sometimes in spikes, ses- 
sile in a cup-like, scaly involucre, which enlarges into a rough 
cup around the base of a single, one-seeded nut or acorn. The 
cotyledons thick and fleshy, remaining underground in germi- 
nation, like those of the common garden pea, not lifted above 
the surface as in the bean. For more than a hundred years the 
botanists of the world have been at work at this most difficult 
genus, and while in a measure they have brought " order out 
of chaos," and especially in our North American species, there 
is still much to be done before the oaks of the world are scien- 
tifically described and correctly classified. The great work of 
F. Andrew Michaux & Son, on the American Oaks and other 
trees, published in Paris 1810-13, under the name of North 
American Sylva," and later published in this country, will long 



rOEEST TREES. 



197 



remain a monument to the industry and scientific attainments 
of the authors, but recent discoveries, especially in the Eocky 
Mountain regions and westward, has not only added many new 
species of the oak, but has also made it necessary to revise some 
of the earlier classifications of the members of this genus. The 
late Dr. George Engelmann, of St. Louis, Mo., a most capable 
botanist, devoted much time to the study of the oaks, and ]3ub- 
lislied an excellent paper on the subject in the Transactions of 
the Academy of Science, of St. Louis, Vol. Ill, 1876, and also 
elaborated the oaks of California for the Botany of California, 
edited by Sereno Watson, issued as supplementary volumes of 
the Geological Survey. I accept Dr. Engelmann's arrangement 
of the species, but may add that he was well aware of the diffi- 
culties to be met in attempting this work, for in the paper re- 
ferred to, in speaking of the many varieties of the Rocky 
Mountain scrub-oak, he says : ''If one oak behaves thus, why 
not others ? Thrown into a sea of doubt, what can guide us to 
a correct knowledge." Having spent many months among 
these scrub-oaks, I am fully aware of the difficulties to be met 
in trying to determine where a variety ends, and a species be- 
gins, consequently am more than willing to throw the responri- 
bihty of separating them upon some one else." 

Qnercus agrifolia, Nee. — Encino Holly-leaved Oak. — Leaves 
oval to oblong, two to three inches long, usually obtuse or 
heart-shaped at base, the uneven margins with spine-tipped 
teeth, but these are sometimes absent. Petiole or leaf -stalks 
downy. Acorns sub-sessile or sessile, solitary or in clusters, 
maturing the first season, slender, and one to one and a half 
inches long, and about one-third of an nich broad. This is one 
of the Black Oaks. A large tree, with very thick gray bark, 
and wood rather cross-grained and perishable. A very pictur- 
esque oak, with very stocky stem, sometimes twenty feet in 
circumference, and Prof. Brewer reports specimens near Mount 
Diablo, with a spread of branches of one hundred and twenty 
feet. A variety {Q. agrifoUa, var. frutescens), is only a shrub, 
three to five feet high. A common tree in the maratime portion 
of California. 

alba, L.— White Oak.— Leaves whitish, pubescent while 
young, but soon become smooth, bright green above, with 
three to nine oblong or linear-obtuse, mostly entire oblique 
lobes. Leaves very persistent, many remaining on the trees all 
winter, and only fall when pushed off by the expanding buds 



198 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



in spring. Acorn ovoid-oblong, about an inch long, set in a 
shallow, rough cup. The kernel sweet-tasted, or only sHghtly 
bitter, edible. A large tree, sixty to eighty feet high, with stem 
six feet and sometimes more in diameter. Wood light-colored, 
heavy, very tough, and elastic, well-known as one of the most 
valuable of American forest trees. The wood is very durable, 
and is always in great demand for a variety of purposes, especi- 
ally for agricultural implements, carriages, and ties for rail- 
roads. A common tree in our northern forests, extending south- 
ward to Florida. The white oak should be given a prominent 
place in every collection of native forest trees cultivated for 
economic purposes. 

Q. aquaticaj Catesby. — Water Oak. — Leaves perennial or ever- 
green, obovate-oblong, or wedged-shape, smooth on both sides ; 
obtusely three-lobed at the summit, often entire, or on young 
shoots, toothed or lobed, with bristle-like awns. Acorns small, 
globular, downy, and set in a shallow saucer-shaped cup. A 
small tree with smooth bark, seldom growing more than forty 
feet high. Wood variable, sometimes tough, but more com- 
monly rather brittle, used principally for fuel. In swamps and 
along the banks of streams, from Maryland to Florida and west- 
ward. 

Q. Wcolor, Willd. — Swamp White Oak. — Leaves unequally and 
deeply sinuate, toothed, almost pinnatifid, whitish, downy be- 
neath, and bright green above. The leaves intermediate in 
form, between the white and chestnut oaks, but the species is 
usually classed with the latter. Acorns nearly an inch long, 
oblong-ovoid, set in a shallow cup, often mossy-fringed at the 
margin. A large tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and stem five 
to eight feet in diameter. Wood closely resembling the white 
oak, and valuable- Most common in the Northern and West- 
em States in moist soils, but also found South among the 
mountains, but on moist or wet ground. Var. Michauxii, Nutt., 
has smaller leaves, and longer and more slender acorns. A 
large tree in Southern Illinois, Delaware, Florida, and South 
Carolina. 

Q. Brcweri, Engelm. — Brewer's Oak. — Leaves small, one and a 
half to two or three inches long, deeply pinnatifid, lobes obtuse 
and emarginate, sometimes again lobed on petioles. Acorns 
sessile, an inch long, sot in a shallow cup. A small shrub, two 
to six feet high, on the middle or higher elevation of the Sierra 
Nevada, from Calveras Coimty, Cal., to the Oregon line. 



FOREST TREES. 



199 



Q. Catesl)[ei, Michx. — Turkey Oak, Scrub-oak. — Leaves rather 
thick and broad, narrowed into a short stalk, deeply lobed, the 
lobes very acute, from a broad base, six to nine inches long. 
Acorns rather large, but quite short, set in a thick turbinate cup 
an inch broad, the upper scales curved inward. A small, scraggy 
rough-barked tree in dry pine-barrens, from North Carolina to 
Florida. 

Q. chierea, Michx. — Upland Willow Oak. — Leaves entire, about 
three inches long, and less than an inch wide, obtuse or acute, 
white tomentose beneath, persistent, and almost evergreen. 
Acorns small, almost round, the cup enclosing about one-third 
of the nut. A small tree, twenty to thirty feet high in the pine- 
barrens of North Carolina and Florida. Michaux states that 
this species, like that of the Black Oak, affords a beautiful yel- 
low dye, but the tree is too small to be of much value, even for 
fuel. Var. pumila, Michx. Q. pumila, Walt. , is a low shrub, 
only two or three feet high, with lanceolate, wavy leaves. Fruit 
of species and variety biennial. 

Q. clirysolepiSj Liebm. — California Live Oak. — Leaves ever- 
green, oblong, acute, or terminating in a sharp, rigid point, ob- 
tuse or sHghtly heart-shaped at base, mostly entire on large 
trees, but on younger ones sharply toothed, sometimes both 
forms on the same branch, rather thick and about two inches 
long and an inch wide, yellowish, dov/ny beneath, but after a 
year becoming bluish-white. Acorns oval, sometimes an inch 
and a half long, and only a half inch in diameter, set in a sau- 
cer-shaped cup, covered with triangular scales. Acorns matur- 
ing at the close of the second season. One of the largest oaks, 
with a flaky ash-gray bark in the Coast Ranges, and along the 
slopes of the Sierra Nevada. On the higher mountains it is of- 
ten a mere shrub. Var. vacciniifolia, Engelmann, is a small 
shrub, three to six feet high, with acorns less than an inch long, 
with smaller leaves. 

Q. eoccinea, Wang. — Scarlet Oak. — Leaves long, petioled, oval 
or oblong, with deep and broad-scalloped edges, and six to eight 
entire or sparingly-toothed lobes, rounded at the base, smooth 
and shining on both sides. Cup top-shaped, enclosing about 
one-half of the roundish depressed acorn, which is usually from 
a half to three-fourths of an inch long. The leaves turn bright 
red or scarlet in late autumn, and are quite persistent, although 
dropping after severe freezing weather sets in. A handsome 
large tree with gray bark, rough, but not deeply furrowed. 



200 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Wood white, heavy, moderately coarse-grained, sometimes quite 
tough, but variable in texture and value. New England, and 
near the coast, southward, on sandy soils, on red-sandstone 
ridges of New Jersey and south. Engelmann says it is found 
in Minnesota. There is yet some doubt as to whether this is 
really distinct from Q. tinctoria. 

Q. densiflora, Hook. & Arn. — California Chestnut Oak.— Leaves 
persistent, oblong-acute, obtuse or rarely acute at base, entire, 
with re volute margins, but sometimes slightly toothed, tomen- 
tose beneath, or whitish, two to five inches long, a half inch to 
two inches broad. Staminate flowers in erect catkins, with 
pistillate at base. Acorns biennial, oval or oblong, sharp- 
pointed, an inch to an inch and a half long, with a very thick 
shell set in a very shallow cup. Kernel very bitter. A species 
intermediate between the oaks and chestnuts. A middle-sized 
tree or shrub, but Professor Brewer says that in the Santa Cruz 
Mountains it grows to a higlit of fifty or sixty feet, and rarely 
to eighty feet, with a stem two feet in diameter. Prof. Palmer 
reports it on the Coast Eanges of California, from the Santa Lucia 
Mountains, and among the red woods to the Shasta region. 

Q. Douglassii, Hook. & Arn. — Mountain White Oak, or Blue 
Oak. — Leaves small, only an inch or two long, oblong-sinuate 
or with shallow lobes, sometimes almost entire, on short stalks, 
bluish-green, becoming smooth above, pubescent beneath. 
Acorns an inch or more in length, oblong, tapering or pointed, 
set in a shallow cup, covered with flat scales. A medium to 
large tree, with downy branchlets, on dry foot hills of the 
Coast Ranges of California, near the centre of the State. Resem- 
bles the white oak of the Eastern States, but does not grow as 
large. The largest trees seen by Professor Brewer had a cir- 
cumference of nine feet. 

Q. dnmosa, Nutt. — Small-leaved Oak. — Leaves small, a half 
inch to an inch long, oblong-obtuse, rounded, or rarely acute at 
the base, entire or slightly sinuate on young shoots, toothed, 
dark green above and pubescent beneath. Acorns sessile, varia- 
ble in size, an inch long or more, sometimes slender and small, 
set in deep cups, usually strongly tubercled. Var. biillata has 
leaves rounder, thicker and paler in color. A tall shrub or 
small tree, seldom over twenty feet high, and with slender 
straight branches. Leaves persistent through winter. In the 
Coast Ranges, from San Diego to San Francisco Bay. The variety 
in the Santa Lucia Mountains (Prof. Brewer). 



FOREST TREES. 



201 



Q. Emoryij Torr. — Dwarf Evergreen Oak. — Leaves small, ever- 
green, slightly lobed, acorns very small. A widely spread 
shrubby evergreen oak in Southern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, 
and southward in Mexico. 

Q. fakata; Michx. — Spanish Oak. — Leaves oblong, rounded at 
the base, three to five-lobed ; the lobes entire or sparingly 
toothed at the apex, the terminal one commonly narrow and 
elongated. Acorns about a half inch long, set in a cup enclos- 
ing half of the roundish nut. A large tree, often sixty to seventy 
feet high, and stem four feet in diameter. Wood dark-brown 
or reddish, coarse-grained, decays rapidly when exposed to 
moisture. Bark thick, rich in tannin, and often extensively 
employed by tanners in making what is called ''Oak-tanned 
Leather." New Jersey, southward to Florida, and westward to 
the Valley of the Mississippi. Very abundant in the Southern 
States. 

Q. Garryana, Dougl. — Western Oak. — Leaves four to six inches 
long, by two to five wide on stalks, a half to one inch long, 
coarsely deeply cut-lobed ; lobes broad, obtuse, or sometimes 
sharp-pointed, dull green above, beneath pale-yellowish, and 
somewhat downy. Acorns sessile or on short stalks, one to 
one and a half inches long, oval, in small and very shallow 
cup. A large tree, seventy to a hundred feet high, and stem 
three to four feet in diameter. Wood said to be coarse, hard, 
and brittle. A common tree in the valleys north of San Fran- 
cisco Bay, extending into Oregon and British Columbia. 

Q. Georgiana, M. A. Curtis. — Georgia Oak. — Leaves three to 
four inches long, very smooth, somewhat obovate, and wedge- 
shaped at base, with deep or shallow sinuses, three to five-tri- 
angular or obtuse lobes. Acorn a half inch long, oval or round- 
ish, set in smooth cups, enclosing one third of the nut. A small 
shrub, six to eight feet high, on Stone Mountain, Georgia. 

Q. lieteropliyllaj Michx. — Bartram Oak. — Dr. Engelmann places 
this among the hybrid oaks, and intermediate between Q. Phcl- 
los and coccinea, but Decandolle considered it a variety of Q. 
aquatica, which in some respects it certainly very much resem- 
bles, especially in the sharp-pointed lobes of its leaves. The 
original tree in the old Bartram Garden, Philadelphia, was 
long since destroyed, and was only a small tree, some thirty feet 
high at the time. But there are seedlings of it now twice that 
hight, differing somewhat from the original. At best, we may 



202 



PRACTICAL rORESTEY. 



say that this species is a doubtful one, although by some authors 
it is thought that it is to be fonnd in New Jersey, and south- 
ward to North Carohna. 

Q. hypolenca. — Engelm. — Leaves thick, lanceolate, acute, 
three or four inches long, and from three-quarters of an inch to 
nearly an inch broad. Usually entire or slightly revolute on 
the margin, but occasionally show one to three minute teeth. 
Nearly smooth, and pale-green above, densely covered with yel- 
lowish down beneath. Acorns small, sessile, solitary or in pairs, 
ovate, and set in a roundish cup, pubescent obtuse scales. A 
small tree, sometimes thirty feet high, near the copper mines. 
New Mexico (Thurber). Southern Arizona, at an altitude of 
seven thousand feet (Rothrock), and also in Sonora, Mexico. 

Q, imbricaria, Miehx. — Shingle Oak, Laurel Oak. — Leaves 
three to five inches long, lanceolate-oblong, acute or obtuse at 
each end, tipped with an abrupt short point, pale-downy be- 
neath, deciduous. Acorn globular, five-eighths of an inch long, 
cup enclosing about one-third of the nut, scales broad, whitish, 
closely appressed. A large, stocky tree, forty to fifty feet high, 
with quite smooth bark even on old trees. Wood hard, heavy, 
coarse-grained, easily split, and occasionally used for making 
shingles of an inferior quality. A handsome tree when young, 
the leaves resembling those of the chestnut. In barren and 
open woodland, from New Jersey westward. 

Q. ilicifolia, Wang. — Bear, or Black Scrub-oak. — ^A low, dwarf 
shrub, with leaves three to four inches long, obovate, wedge- 
shaped at base, angularly, about five-lobed, white downy be- 
neath. In sandy barrens and rocky hills. Acorns barely a half 
inch long. New England to Ohio, and southward. 

Q. Kelloggii, Newbury. — Kellogg's Oak. — Leaves deciduous, 
thick, broadly oval, pinnatifid-lobed, the lobes tapering and 
entire, or broad and lobed-dentate, at first downy, but soon be- 
coming smooth, three to six inches long. Acorns oblong, over 
an inch long, mostly on short stalks, one half to an inch long, 
and several together ; cup round, but sometimes very deep, 
with ovate-lanceolate imbricate scales. A medium or large- 
sized tree with rough, black bark, in the Coast Ranges of Cali- 
fornia. For various synonymes see Index. 

Q. lanrifolia, Michx. — Laurel-leaved Oak. — Leaves three to 
four inches long, oblong-lanceolate, entire or lobed, widest in 
the upper third, or at least above the middle. Leaves persistent, 



FOREST TREES. 



203 



and remain on the trees until spring. Acorns biennial and 
quite small. A large tree, North Carolina to Florida. 

Q. lobata, Nee. — Lobed-leaf Oak. — Leaves deciduous, two to 
four inches long, downy beneath, oblong or ovate, deeply- lobed, 
lobes sometimes toothed or lobe-dentate. Acorns elongated- 
conical, one to two and a fourth inches long, usually pointed. 
Cup deeply hemispherical, almost always strongly tubercula- 
ted. A large tree, with smooth, slender, and often pendant 
branches. Common throughout the State of California. Wood 
said to be brittle, and bark on old trees four or five inches thick. 

Q. lyiata, Walt. — Over-cup Oak, Post Oak. — Leaves five to 
eight inches long, crowded at the ends of the branches, downy 
or pale beneath, narrowed at base, obovate-obloDg, seven to 
nine lobes, the lobes triangular, acute and entire. Acorn round- 
ish, and nearly enclosed in the round-ovate cup with rugged 
scales. Acorns ripen the first season. A large tree in the 
swamps of North Carolina to Florida, and sparingly in Arkan- 
sas. Not very abundant. Wood said to be excellent, resemb- 
ling that of the White Oak. 

Q. macrocarpaj Michx. — Burr Oak, Mossy-cup Oak. — Leaves 
large, eight to fifteen inches long, thin, obovate-oblong, slightly 
downy beneath, narrowed at the base, stalk short, slightly or 
strongly, and many-lobed, the lobes rounded and mostly entire. 
Fruit large, scales of the cup thick, the upper ones producing 
long, fringe-like awns. Acorn an inch to an inch and a half 
long, half enclosed in the cup A large tree, sixty to eighty 
feet high, with stem four feet or over in diameter. One is 
mentioned in Vol. I, North American Sylva, as growing in Ohio, 
with a stem seventeen feet in diameter, at six feet above the 
ground, and the tree one hundred feet high. The young twigs 
and branches are somewhat corky. Wood coarse-grained, of 
little value, except for fuel. A widely distributed tree in our 
Northern States, but not very abundant, except in the Western 
or from Ohio south and west. 

Q. Mulilenbergii, Engelm. — Yellow Chestnut Oak. — Leaves thin, 
five to six inches long, one and a half to two broad, pale be- 
neath, sharply serrate, with incurved teeth, and either lanceo- 
late, with a long point, or broadly ovate or obovate, sometimes 
seven inches long and five wide. A small or medium-sized tree, 
with flaky, pale ash-colored thin bark, and very tough wood ; 
light yellowish or brown when mature, whence probably the 
popular name of yellow oak. Occurs scatteringly throughout 



204 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



the Middle and Northern Atlantic States in Pennsylvania, only 
on limestone hills (Porter), but most abundant in the Mississippi 
Valley. Wood valuable and very dui*able. 

Q, nigra, L. — Black Jack Barren Oak. — Leaves large, five to 
ten inches, thick, broadly wedge-shaped, rounded at the base, 
mostly three-lobed at summit, bristle-awned, smooth above, 
and rusty-downy beneath, deciduous. Acorns biennial, one- 
half to three-fourths of an inch long, cup top-shaped, with 
coarse scales enclosing one-third or one-half of the oblong-ovate 
mat. A small tree, seldom more than twenty feet high, with 
very dark-colored rough bark. Wood coarse-grained, only 
valuble for fuel. Widely distributed from New Jersey south- 
ward to Florida, and westward to Texas and northward. 

Q. oblongifolia, Torr. — Evergreen White Oak. — Leaves ever- 
green, oblong, one to two inches long, and half as wide, on 
very short stalks, entire or with a few blimt teeth, obtuse at 
each end, or slightly heart-shaped at base, downy when young, 
calyx lobesj short, oval, woolly. Acoms oblong, one-half to an 
inch long, cups hemispherical, tubercled. A small, handsome, 
evergreen tree, twenty to thirty feet high, with stem two feet 
in diameter. Fruit maturing the first season. Mountains of 
Southern California and Mexico. 

Q. Palmeri, Engelm. — Palmer's Oak. — A tall shrub, with 
thick and very rigid leaves, scarcely an inch long, round, oval, 
obtuse or sub-cordate at base, with undulate and spiny mar- 
gins. Acorns maturing the second season. Mountains of San 
Diego County, California, near the boundary and southward. 

Q. palustris, DuRoi. — Pin Oak, Swamp Oak. — Leaves oblong, 
smooth and shining, bright green on both sides, deeply pinnati- 
fid, with broad and rounded sinuses, the lobes divergent, cut- 
lobed and toothed. Acorns globular, scarcely one-half inch 
long, cup shallow and saucer-shaped. A \ery handsome, medium 
sized tree, with light, elegant foliage, growing in low grounds, 
along streams, from New England to Nebraska and Kansas. 
Wood rather coarse-grained, but valuable for plank or for pur- 
poses where it will not be exposed to the weather. 

Q. Phellos, L. — ^Willow Oak. — Leaves deciduous, linear-lanceo- 
late, narrowed at both ends, two to three inches long, bristle 
awned, scurfy when young. Cup saucer-shaped, enclosing the 
base of the roundish nut. Acorn maturing the second year. A 
tree thirty to fifty feet high, with reddish, coarse-grained wood 



FOEEST TEEES. 



205 



of little value, except for posts and beams in buildings, where 
it will not be exposed to moisture. A handsome ornamental 
tree. There are several varieties. 

Q. Prinus, L. — Swamp Chestnut Oak. — Leaves ovate, oblong, 
or oblong-obovate, coarsely and somewhat dentate, with round- 
ed teeth, downy beneath, and smooth above. Cup globular, or 
with a top-shaped base, thick, tubercled when old, nearly one 
half the length of the ovoid acorn, which is about one inch long, 
with a sweetish edible kernel ; the acorns ripening the first 
year. A medium to large tree, with reddish, coarse-grained 
wood, much inferior to white oak. Vermont to Florida, and 
west to Mississippi, also west of the Alleghanies in Tennessee 
and Kentucky. 

Q. princides, Willd. — Chinquapin Oak. — Mainly distinguished 
from Q. Mithlenbergii by its low stature and more undulate than 
sharp-toothed leaves, on shorter petioles, and commonly deeper 
cups. Dr. Engelmann says well enough marked eastward, but 
from Western Missouri to Kansas, it runs into the arborescent 
Muhlenbergii. A low sbrub East, and a doubtful species. 

Q. rubra, L. — Red Oak. — Leaves oblong, smooth, pale beneath, 
with eight to twelve entire or sharply toothed lobes. Leaves 
turning dark red after frost. Acorn an inch long, set in a shal- 
low cup with fine scales. A very large and common tree, with 
reddish, very coarse-grained wood, but in some soils, moderately 
compact, and much used for hewn timber and staves for bar- 
rels, and similar vessels. Everywhere from Nova Scotia to 
Florida, and westward to Minnesota and Texas. 

Q, stellata, "Wang. — Post Oak. — Leaves four to six inches long, 
cut into five to seven roundish divergent lobes, the upper ones 
the largest and often notched ; grayish downy underneath, and 
pale and rough above. Acorn about a half inch long, oval, cup 
encircling one third to one half the nut. A medium sized tree, 
forty to fifty feet high, with very hard, durable wood, resemb- 
ling that of the white oak. Massachusetts to Florida, and west- 
ward to the prairies beyond the Mississippi Valley. 

Q. tinctoria, Bartram. — Yellow-Barked Oak, Quercitron or 
Black Oak. — Leaves obovato-oblong, slightly or deeply lobed, 
the lobes sharply toothed, obtuse at the base, more or less rusty, 
pubescent when young. Acorns nearly round, one half to two 
thirds of an inch long, set in a rather deep, conspicuously scaly 
top-shaped cup. A large tree, sixty to eighty feet or more in 



206 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



bight, with reddish, close-grained, strong and durablp wood, 
extensively employed by coopers and carriage makers. The 
bark is used in tanning, and long known as the quercitron of 
dyers. Very abundant in all the Atlantic States, but less com- 
mon in the Western. 

Q. tomentella. — Engelm. — Leaves oblong-lanceolate, two to 
three inches long, on short stalks, obtuse at base, acute or 
toothed, rarely entire, strongly ribbed with revolute margins, 
densely downy when young, becoming smooth. Leaves ever- 
green, or at least very persistent. Acorns ovate, and over an 
inch long, maturing the second season. A tree sometimes forty 
feet high, and closely allied to the California Live Oak {Q, 
chrysolepis), Guadalupe Island (Dr. Palmer). 

Q. nudnlata, Torr. — Rocky Mountain Scrub-Oak. — One of the 
Rocky Mountain oaks that runs into almost innumerable forms, 
and from low, almost trailing shrubs, up to trees twenty or 
more feet high. The species has a general resemblance to the 
White Oak of the Eastern States, and the leaves are fully as 
persistent, and the wood is very hard and tough, but usually 
too small for any use except stakes and firewood. The leaves 
resemble those of the White Oak (Q. alba), only they are very 
much smaller. Dr. Engelmann refers to a few of the best known 
forms of this species, as follows : 1. Var. Gambelii (Q. Gam- 
belli, Nutt., and probably Q. Drummondii, Liebm.) 2. Yar. 
Gunnisoni {Q. alba, var. Gunnisoni, Torrey). 3. Var. Jamesii, 
Engelm. 4. Var. Wrightii, Engelm., often confounded with 
Q, EmoryL 5. Var. pungens, Engelm., (§. pungens, Liebm.) 
Var. oblongata, Engelm^, (Q. oblongifolia, Torr.) 6. Var. 
grisea, Engelm., (Q. grisea, Liebm.) 

Q. yirens, Ait. — Live Oak. — Leaves two to four inches long, 
thick evergreen, oblong, obtuse, somewhat rough or wrinkled, 
smooth and shining above, hoary tomentose beneath, the mar- 
gins revolute. Fruit on a rather long stem, cup top-shaped, 
wrinkled, enclosing the base of the oblong, brown acorn, which 
matures the second season. A large tree, with spreading branches, 
fifty to seventy feet high, and stem four to six feet in diameter. 
Wood yellowish or light brown, very heavy, fine-grained, and 
veiy durable. Formerly largely used for ship building, but 
less since iron has been employed for similar purposes. There 
are two or three varieties described in botanical works. A 
common and rather abundant tree in the Southern Atlantic 
States, and westward along the Gulf Coast to Mexico. 



FOREST TREES. 



207 



Q. Wislizcni. — A. DC. — Leaves smooth, dark green and shining, 
one to three, rarely four inches long, by one to two broad, 
varying in shape from narrowly-lanceotatc to broadly oval, 
entire or serrate, or often sinuate, dentate or lobed. Cups tur- 
binate, very deep, or even tubular, one half to an inch deep, 
covered with brown lanceolate scales. Acorns slender, tapering, 
often an inch and a half long. Leaves very persistent, and the 
acorns maturing in the second season. A large tree, fifty to 
sixty feet high, and common in the lower valleys of California. 
Var. f nitescens, Engelmann, is a shrub from three to ten feet 
high, known in the Sierra Nevadas as Desert Oak. 

HYBRID OAKS. 

There have been from time to time single specimens of oak 
trees found in different parts of the country that did not ap- 
pear to agree with the recognized distinctive characteristics 
of any of the indigenous species. It has been claimed for 
many years that some of the number at least were hybrids, and 
Dr. Engelmann favored this idea, and gives a list of those 
known to him in the monograph to which I have already re- 
ferred. In this list he places the Bartram Oak, and the Quer- 
cus Leana, of Nuttall's Sylva, and several other unique forms 
of our indigenous oaks. 

rOREIG^^ SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

Of all the foreign species of the oak, the European or Eng- 
lish oak, Quercus Eobur is probably the most familiar to the 
people of this country, and were we in want of any additional 
species for planting in forests, this one could be recommended, 
as it is closely related to our White Oaks, but we have such a 
large number of species of our own that we have no good rea- 
son for introducing anything from abroad of the kind, except 
for ornamental purposes. The European oak has yielded many 
beautiful varieties, among which I may name the Purple-leaved, 
Golden-leaved, Mottled-leaved, Cut-leaved, Weeping oak, and nu- 
merous varieties to be found named in nurserymen's catalogues. 
Besides these, there are several varieties of the Turkey Oak 
{Q. cerris) in cultivation, and recently several handsome spe- 
cies and varieties of the oak have been introduced from Japan, 
among them the noble Daimio Oak, which may at some future 
time be planted as a forest tree in this country, but my limited 
space will not admit of even enumerating the large number of 
species of foreign oaks, however much I might desire to do so. 



308 



PEACTICAL rOKESTRY. 



RHAMXUS, Linn. — Buclctliorn. 

An extensive genus containing nearly sixty species of ever- 
green and deciduous shrubs or small trees. Flowers perfect, or 
the sexes separated ; petals four or five, but in some species, 
entirely wanting. Fruit, beriy-like, containing two to four 
bony or horn-like, one-seeded nutlets. Of the six indigenous 
species, three belong to the Pacific Coast, and three to the 
Eastern States. Only two grow to a hight of twenty feet. 

Rhamnus ainifoUa* — L'.Her. — A small shrub, two to four feet 
high, with ovate-oblong deciduous leaves. Flowers without 
petals. Fruit black, New England to Washington Territory. 

E. ralifornia, Esch. — California Buckthorn. — Leaves ovate-ob- 
long to elliptical, one to four inches long, acute or obtuse, 
mostly rounded at the base, slightly toothed or entire, ever- 
green. Petals very small ; fruit, blackish-purple, with thin 
pulp, a quarter of an inch in diameter, and two to three-seeded. 
A spreading shrub, from five to eighteen feet high, throughout 
California. Var. tomentella, is densely white, tomentose, es- 
pecially on the underside of the leaves. 

R. Carolinlana, Walt. — Carolina Buckthorn. — Leaves three to 
four inches long, oblong, wavy, and finely serrulate on the mar- 
gins, the slender petioles and many -flowered clusters pubes- 
cent ; petals five, minute. Fruit round, three-seeded. A small 
tree, sometimes over twenty feet high, but usually a low, much- 
branched shrub. Long Island to Florida, and west to the 
Rocky Mountains 

R. crocea) Nutt. — Eed-Berried Buckthorn. — Leaves evergreen, 
thick, oblong or obovate, to orbicular, variable, an inch or an 
inch and a half long. Flowers tetramerous, without petals. 
Fruit one fourth of an inch long, two to four-seeded, bright red. 
A branching shrub, four to fifteen feet high. Mountains and 
hillsides of Southern California, and eastward into Arizona. 
Berries eaten by the Indians, and said to color their veins red. 

R. lanceolatns, Pursh. — Narrow-Leaved Buckthorn.— Leaves 
oblong-lanceolate, acute. Flowers clustered, on short pedicels, 
or scattered on longer pedicels. Seed black, as large as a grain 
of pepper. A tall shrub, from Pennsylvania, southward to 
Alabama, in swamps. 

R. Purshiana, DC. — Bear Beriy. — Leaves deciduous, two to 
seven inches long, one to three wide, elliptic, mostly acute, ob- 
tuse at base, denticulate, somewhat pubescent underneath. 



FOREST TREES. 



209 



Flowers large, petals minute. Fruit black, broadly obovoid, a 
quarter of an inch long ; three-lobed and three- seeded. A shrub 
or tree, twenty feet high, the young branches downy. Mendo- 
cino County, California, northward to the British Boundary. 

The common Buckthorn of Europe {R. catharticiis) has been 
so long cultivated in this country for hedges, that it has run 
wild in many places, becoming a small tree with thorny 
branchlets, with ovate or oblong leaves, and fruit with three to 
four seeds. 

RHizoPHORA, Linn. — Mangrove, 

Trees or shrubs of maritime swamps, with opposite entire, 
evergreen leaves. The branches throw out roots freely, which 
descend and take root in the mud, each branch beiag supported 
by its own roots, a single tree in this manner may extend over 
a large space. Only one species. 

Rliizoplicra Mangle, Linn. — Mangrove. — Leaves obovate-oblong; 
peduncles two to three flowered. Flowers pale yellow, quite 
showy. Fruit, a small, one-seeded nut, which remains attached 
to the tree until it germinates. A small tree, in the maritime 
swamj)s of Southern Florida, Louisiana, Texas, and throughout 
Tropical America. 

RHODODENDRON", Linn. — Rose Bay, 

An extensive genus of several hundred species, widely distribu- 
ted over the globe, mostly in cool or temperate climates. Prin- 
cipally evergreen trees and shrubs with showy flowers, usually 
in terminal umbels or corymbs. The Rhododendron and Azaleas 
are so nearly allied, in fact, scarcely distinguishable as a whole, 
that our modern botanists have classified them all under the 
one generic name of Rhododendron, separating them under 
sub-genera or in groups. They are all handsome, ornamental 
shrubs or small trees, and extensively cultivated among all 
civilized nations. We have about a half dozen species of the 
Azalea proper, and four or at most five of the Rhododendrons, 
but only one of the number grows tall enough to be classed 
among trees. 

Rhododendron maxim am, L. — Great Laurel Rose Bay. — Leaves 
obovate-oblong, abrupt acute, smooth and green on both sides. 
Flowers bell-shaped, white or pale rose color, spotted within with 
yellow or green, and usually about an inch broad. Usually a 
shrub from ten to twenty feet high, but in the mountains at 



210 



PKACTICAL FORESTEY. 



the South sometimes a tree forty feet high. Wood very hard, 
but usually too crooked to be of much value except for fuel or 
making handles for small tools. More or less abundant along 
the banks of streams, from Canada to Florida, but keeping in 
high woods in the South. 

The R. Catawbiense, Michx., has lilac-purple flowers, and is 
the parent of many of our most valuable cultivated varieties. 
Hybrids between this and several foreign species have been 
raised in great numbers. The California Rhododendron (R, 
Calif or nicum^ Hooker), is a low shrub, four to eight feet high, 
with leaves four to six inches long, and handsome rose-colored 
flowers, two inches in diameter. It is a very handsome and 
showy shrub, worthy of extended cultivation. The Lapland 
Rose Bay {R. Lapponiciim, Wahl.), is a low dwarf or prostrate 
shrub, with leaves about a half inch long, and very small vio- 
let-purple flowers. Found in the mountains of Korthern New 
York, and the New England States, also in Europe. The native 
species of Azalea are all shrubs, of only moderate size, and for 
this reason are omitted. 

RHUS^ Linn. — Sumach. 

A large and widely distributed genus of more than a hundred 
and twenty species, some fourteen of which inhabit the United 
States. Leaves simple or pinnate. Flowers small, either perfect, 
or the two sexes separate on the same plant, or on separate 
plants ; usually greenish-white or yellowish, in axillary or ter- 
minal panicles or racemes. Fruit, a small, dry drupe, in 
branching open panicles or close, compact clusters or heads. 
The leaves of some of the species extensively employed in tan- 
ning certain kinds of leather. The resinous juice of one or more 
species in Japan, yields the well-known lacquer varnish of that 
country, while from the fruit, a peculiar and valuable vegeta- 
ble wax is extracted. There are several species that are very 
poisonous to some persons, but not to others. Only two or 
three of our native species grow large enough to be classed as 
trees, but as each has some peculiar habit or properties that 
should be well known to the practical forester, I will refer 
briefly to all, and first to those known to be poisonous. 

Rhns diversiloba, Torr. and Gray. — Poison Oak, Yeara. — Leaves 
composed of three ovate, obovate, or elliptical leaflets, one to 
three inches long, obtuse or acute, three-lobed or coarsely 
toothed. Flowers whitish, in loose axillary panicles. Fruit 



FOREST TREESc 



211 



smooth and whitish. A plant with a slender stem, erect or 
chmbing by rootlets, three to eight feet high. Very much re- 
sembling the Rhus Toxicodendron of the Atlantic States. Com- 
mon from Southern California to British Columbia. 

R. yenenata^ DC— Poison Sumach, Poison Dogwood, Poison 
Elder. — Branchlets and leaf -stalks smooth ; leaflets seven to 
thirteen, ovate or oblong, abruptly pointed. Fruit small, 
globular, dun color, in loose axillary panicles, hanging on lato 
in winter. A rather handsome, upright shrub or tree, some- 
times twenty feet high. In swamps and low ground. Supposed 
to be the most poisonous of all the species, but there are many 
persons who can handle it with impunity. 

R. Toxicodendron, Linn. — Poison Ivy, Poison Oak.— Leaves 
composed of three rhombic-ovate leaflets, mostly pointed and 
rather downy beneath, variously cut-lobed or toothed. Fruit 
same as the last, but leaves usually yellow after frosts, but 
sometimes slightly tinged with red. Usually climbing by root- 
lets, over rocks or ascending trees to a great liight, and the stem 
becoming as large as a man's arm. A species quite variable in 
form of growth, but always readily distinguished by its leaves 
and fruit. Michaux describes a low growing, southern form, 
under the name of the Oak-leaved {quercifolium), of a more 
erect habit, with variously lobed leaves, but the leaflets are only 
three in number. A common plant throughout the Atlantic 
States and westward to the Eocky Mountains. The following 
are all innoxious species, and some of them cultivated for or- 
nament. 

R. cotonoides, Nutt. — American Cotinus. — Leaves simple, thin, 
oval-obtuse, entire, acute at the base, the upper ones long peti- 
oled. Flowers perfect in an open panicle, the pedicles mostly 
abortive, elongating, and becoming plumose as in the common 
Smoke-tree or Venetian sumach tree in gardens. Nuttall says 
that during his tour into the interior of Arkansas Territory, in 
1819, he discovered this species on the high, broken calcareous 
rocky banks of the Grand Eiver, near a place called Eagle's 
Nest." A large shrub, but it has recently been reported to have 
been found growing in Alabama, to the hight of twenty feet or 
more, with a stem nearly or quite a foot in diameter. Not poi- 
sonous, neither are any of the following species except the last. 
R. typMna, Linn. — St aghorn Sumach. — Leaflets, eleven to thirty- 
one, lanceolate-pointed, serrate, smooth, pale beneath. Young 
branches, leaf stalks, and fruit, densely velvety or hairy. Fruit 



212 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



red, acid to the taste, and in a dense, close, upright, terminal 
panicle. A common, low shrub, but sometimes a tree twenty- 
feet high, with orange-colored, brittle wood. Often a great nui- 
sance, appearing in neglected fields, and throwing up suckers ' 
from the large, coarse, subterraneous stems. 

R. glabra. Linn. — Smooth Sumach. — Branches and leaves 
smooth, not downy. Leaflets eleven to thirty-one, whitish un- 
derneath, lanceolate-oblong, pointed and serrate. Fruit red, but 
in an open and spreading cluster. A small or large shrub, some- 
times ten or twelve feet high, and common in rocky soils. Var. 
laciniata, or the Cut-leaved sumach of gardens, belongs to this 
species, and was found in Pennsj'lvania by the late Dr. Dar- 
lington, nearly a half century ago. 

R. copallina, Linn. — Dwarf Sumach. — ^Young stalks and 
branches downy, petioles winged or broadly margined between 
the nine to twenty-one, oblong or ovate-lanceolate leaflets, 
mostly entire, smooth above and downy beneath. Fruit red, A 
low shrub, four to eight feet high, on the borders of woods, in 
both Northern and Southern States. 

R. aromatica. Ait. — Fragrant Sumach. — Leaves composed of 
three cut-lobed leaflets, of a rhombic-ovate form, downy when 
young, aromatic-scented. Flowers light yellow, and appear in 
spring, before the leaves. Fruit red, in short spikes. Var. trilo- 
bata, Gray, or E, irilobata, Nutt., is found from Texas to 
Washington Territory. Fruit pleasant tasted, and eaten by the 
Indians, The small, slender twigs, are also employed for 
making very choice baskets. 

R. pnmila, Michx. — Dwarf Sumach. — A low growing shrub, 
with eleven to thirteen oval, oblong, pointed leaflets, coarsely 
serrate, and downy beneath. Fruit red and hairy. In Georgia 
and North Carolina. 

R. integrifolia, Benth. and Hook. — Entire-leaved Sumach. — 
Leaves evergreen, pubescent when young, but soon smooth ; 
broadly ovate, usually entire, but sometimes spiny-toothed ; 
one to three inches long. Flowers rose-colored, in close pani- 
cles, one to three inches long. Fruit dark-red, viscid, ovate, 
nearly a half inch long. Nuttall, in describing this species, 
under the name of Styphonia integrifoUa, says that it is an un- 
sightly tree, with a stem about the thickness of a man's arm, 
branching in a wide and straggling manner, forming impervi- 
ous thickets along the margins of cliffs and steep banks near 



FOEEST TREES. 



213 




Fig. 47.— VENETIA.N SUMACH, OR SMOKE TREE. 



214 



PEACTICAL POEESTRT. 



the sea, around Santa Barbara and San Diego, California. It is 
also found in Arizona. 

R. lanriiia. — Nutt. — A large evergreen shrub, similar to the 
last, but exhaling an aromatic odor. Leaves lanceolate, sharp- 
pointed, and somewhat rounded at the base. Flowers yellow- 
ish, and fruit whitish, according to Dr. Torrey, the ihin pul^D 
of the dry fruit consists chiefly of a white, waxy material, solu- 
ble in strong alcohol." This is the Lithroea laurina of Walpers, 

R. Metopicanij Linn. — Coral Sumach, Mountain Manchineel. — 
Leaves smooth, composed of three to seven leaflets, oval or 
elliptical-pointed, entire. Leaf -stalks rather long. Flowers in 
loose panicles. Fruit oblong, smooth, of a scarlet color. Juice 
said to be very poisonous. A rare tree, fifteen to twenty feet 
high in Southern Florida, but more common in the West Indies. 

FOREIGN SPECIES. 

Of these, the best known and most common is the Venetian 
Sumach, or Smoke-tree, also called Purple-fringe tree. Its 
botanical name is Rims Cotinus, and is a native of Southern 
Europe. Its leaves are roundish-oval, or oblong, and the flow- 
ers very minute, and of a greenish color, but only a small num- 
ber produce seed, the greater part are abortive, but are suc- 
ceeded by long, silky hairs, forming a cloud-like mass, that 
nearly conceals the foliage, and so light and feathery that the 
name of smoke-tree is not unappropriate. A panicle of a much 
reduced flower-cluster is shown in fig. 47. A few other foreign 
species have been introduced as ornamental trees and shrubs, 
one of the best of these is R. Osbecki, from China. It has very 
large pinnate leaves, the leaf -stalk broadly winged between the 
leaflets. It is quite hardy in our Northern States, and grows to 
a hight of twenty feet or more. 

ROBiKiA^ Linn. — Locust Tree, 

A small genus of only about a half a dozen species, of hand- 
some deciduous trees or shrubs, with showy, pea-shaped flowers 
in hanging axillary racemes. Fruit, a linear-pod, usually flat, 
several seeded, margined on the seed-bearing edge, at length 
two-valved, opening and allowing the seed to drop out. All 
readily i3ropagated from seed, or by budding or grafting. The 
seed will keep sound for several years, but become so hard that 
they require scalding to assist in germination. Some of the spe- 
cies have rather strong spines on the smaller branches, others 
only armed with slender prickles. 



FOREST TREES. 



215 



Robinia Psendafaiia^ L. — Common Locust or False Acacia. — 
Leaves composed of from nine to seventeen small, oblong-ovate 
leaflets. Flowers white, fragrant, in pendulous racemes, three to 
five inches long ; pods flat, containing four to six hard, small, 
and rather flattish seeds. Usually a slender tree, sixty to eighty 
feet high, with stem two to three feet in diameter. Wood white, 
or greenish-yellow, very hard and close-grained, and when of 
slow growth, it is very durable, but when grown on very rich 
soils, as for instance on the rich western prairie soils, it is far 
less durable than when raised on lighter and poorer land. 
When planted singly or in small groves, the trees are usually 
infested with borers, but in larger plantations or forests the 
insect confines itself mainly to trees, the stems of w^hich are 
exposed to the direct rays of the sun. A well known tree, 
extensively naturalized in all of the Atlantic States, but native 
of Southern Pennsylvania and southward along the mountains, 
and by some authors said to extend west to Missouri. It is a 
tree very much inclined to spread by suckers from the roots, as 
well as from the seed, which are usually widely scattered by 
winds. 

R. Yiscosa^ Vent. — Clammy Locust. — Small branches and leaf- 
stalks clammy, spines very small. Leaflets eleven to twenty- 
five, ovate and oblong, obtuse or slightly heart-shaped at base, 
slightly downy beneath, tipped with a short bristle. Flowers 
in a short, rather compact, roundish, upright raceme, rose- 
color and inodorous. Pods three to five-seeded. A small tree, 
from thirty to forty feet high. Wood said to be valuable. 
Native of North Carolina and Georgia in the mountains, along 
the banks of streams. Often cultivated as an ornamental tree. 
Produces suckers in great abundance if the roots are disturbed 
or broken. 

R. hispida, Linn. — Bristly or Rose Acacia. — Branches thickly 
covered with small, slender bristles. Leaflets eleven to eighteen, 
ovate, or oblong-ovate, rounded at the base, and tipped with a 
long bristle. Flowers large, in loose, and mostly pendulous 
racemes ; bright pink or rose-color, very showy and handsome. 
There are several wild and cultivated varieties, all low, strag- 
gling shrubs, their roots running in light soils to a great dis- 
tance, and producing numerous suckers. 

SALix^ Tour. — Willow, Osier, 

An immense genus of about a hundred and sixty species, the 
larger part belonging to Europe and Asia, a half dozen inhabit- 



216 



PK ACTIO AL FORESTRT. 



ing Africa and South America, and about sixty species in 
North America. A very difficult genus to elaborate, as all the 
species are more or less variable. Staminate and pistillate 
aments or catkins preceding or accompanying the leaves. Seeds 
minute, without albumen, cotyledons flattened. Trees, shrubs, | 
or low undershrubs, with alternate simple leaves. Wood light, ;j 
soft, of little economic value. The bark containing a bitter "; 
principle, known as salaci7i, sometimes used as a substitute for^ 
quinine. The slender, tough twigs, of some of the species are 
extensively used for basket-making, and cultivated for this pur- 
pose, a few species for ornament, and a far less number for their 
wood. As a whole, the willows are of no great economic j 
importance, but all are readily propagated by cuttings, and 
some of the smaller species are of value for planting in drifting 
sands, and the banks of streams for the purpose of holding the 
loose soil in place. My limited space will not admit of enu- 
merating all the indigenous and unimportant species, therefore | 
I will only name a few of the larger-growing native, and foreign 
species and varieties. 

Salix cordata, Muhl. — Heart-leaved Willow. — Leaves oblong- 
lanceolate, taper-pointed, truncate or heart-shaped at base ; 
sharply toothed, smooth above, pale, downy beneath ; catkins 1 
aijpearing with the leaves, leafy at base, cylindrical, the fertile i 
ones elongating with the development of the seeds. A small j 
tree, sometimes twenty feet high. From the North Eastern 
States to the Arctic Coast. Abundant in Colorado, Utah, and 
Nevada. There are some four or five local varieties recognized 
by botanists. ^ 

S. Ireyigata^ Bebb.— Smooth-leaved Willow.— Leaves lanceolate, 
or oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, three to seven inches long, 
smooth, glossy-green above, whitish beneath, minutely serru- 
late, the male catkins, roundish-obovate, the female narrower, 
and truncate, with two to four irregular teeth at apex. An 
erect, pyramidal tree, fifteen to fifty feet high, with a stem one 
to two feet in diameter, with fissured, dark-brown bark. In 
Cahf ornia, along the bottom lands near streams from San Diego 
County to the Sacramento Valley. There are several varieties. 

S. lasiandra, Benth. — Long-leaved Willow. — Leaves lanceolate, 
taper-pointed, roundish at base, smooth, whitish beneath, mar- 
gins closely and sharply serrate ; catkins with a leafy stalk, 
with thin, yellowish scales, more or less hairy at the base ; the 
female catkins smooth. Three natural varieties are described 



FOREST TREES. 



217 



by Dr. Bebb, in Botany of California, viz. Var. typica, var. 
lancifolia, and var. Fendleriana. A tree twenty to sixty feet 
high. Sacramento Valley, California, and northward to British 
Columbia. Some of the varieties extend eastward to New 
Mexico. 

S. lasiolepis. — Benth. — Leaves oblanceolate, or rarely oblong- 
lanceolate, four to six inches long, one half to one inch wide, 
the lower ones spatulate, more or less pubescent, especially 
when young ; catkins sessile, one to three inches long, cylindri- 
cal, densely flowered, stamens yellow, three times as long as 
the scales. Var. Bigelovii, Bebb., has leaves more obovate than 
the species, and var. fallax, Bebb. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, 
abruptly contracted at base. A large tree, forty to sixty feet 
high in the neighborhood of San Francisco, and southward in 
CaUfornia. Said to be a common tree throughout the State. 

€. Incidaj Muhl. — Shining Willow. — Leaves ovate-oblong, or 
lanceolate, with a long, tapering point, smooth and shining on 
both sides, serrate. A handsome species of willow, rarely more 
than twenty feet high, along the banks of streams from Penn- 
sylvania, northward through British America. 

S. nigra, Marshall. — Black Willow. — Leaves narrowly-lanceo- 
late, pointed and tapering at each end, serrate, smooth, except 
on the petioles and midrib, bright green on both sides. A small 
tree, twenty to forty feet high, with a rough, black bark, hence 
the specific name. A rare tree in Northern New England and 
Canada, but more common south and west, extending entirely 
across the continent, being plentiful in California. 

FOREIG]^ SPECIES AKD VARIETIES. 

Among the foreign species of the willow, there are quite a 
number that are better known and far more common in culti- 
vation than any of our native species, in fact, it may be said 
that our indigenous willows are almost unknown among culti- 
vated trees and shrubs, while several of the foreign ones may 
be seen in almost every garden, park, or pleasure ground in the 
country. The old and familiar Weeping Willow must have been 
introduced at a very early period in our history, for very old 
and very large trees of it may be seen in all of our older States, 
and specimens with stems four to six feet in diameter, near the 
ground, are far from being rare or uncommon, and while this 
tree is of little or no economic value, it has long been a favorite 
ornamental tree for planting about i)onds, churches, and in 
10 



218 



PEACTIGAL FOKESTEY. 



cemeteries, and will probably continue to have its admirers for 
all time. It is sometimes called the Babylonian Willow, but it 
is certainly not a native of Babylon or any other hot chmate, 
but is without doubt a native of Northern Asia. 

The Hoop-leaved or Eing-leaved Willow {S. annularis)^ 
is a variety of the so-called Babylonian Willow, with 
leaves curved into a ring, but of a similar weeping habit. I 
The next most familiar species is the White Willow {S. alba), 
which has been highly extolled, and quite extensively planted 
for fencing and fuel in the Western States, and Avhile it is a 
rapid growing tree, and the wood moderately firm and good 
for a willow, still it is an inferior forest tree, and scarcely 
worth cultivating where other and better species will grow. 
This species, and its variety with yellow twigs (*S'. alba, var. 
vitellina), are quite common along the banks of small streams 
and ponds in the Eastern States, where they have been planted 
for ornament, or shade for stock in pastures. All of these large 
growing willows have very large masses of fine fibrous roots 
that penetrate the soil to a great depth, and will push to a great 
distance in search of moisture, and for this reason they should 
never be planted near drains, wells, or where their roots will be 
likely to do injury to these or similar structures. There are 
many small ornamental varieties that are well worthy of a 
a place in gardens and pleasure grounds, but as they are fully 
described in nurserymen's catalogues, and are of no considera- 
ble economic value, I omit further reference to them here. 

SAMBUcus, Tour. — Elder. 

A small genus of no especial importance, although some of 
the species have had some reputation for their medicinal prop- 
erties. They are principally small shrubs, with one European 
and one Asiatic herbaceous species. Flowers small but numer- 
ous, in compound cymes or clusters. Fruit, a small, round, 
juicy drupe, but usually called a berry, containing several sepa- 
rate seed-like nutlets, each with one seed. Only one species 
that becomes a tree. 

Sambucus glanca^ Nutt. — Tree-Elder. — Leaflets three to nine, of 
firm texture, ovate or lanceolate, sharply serrate, with rigid, 
spreading teeth. Flowers in a broad, flat cluster or cyme. Fruit 
black, but with so much bloom, that they appear to be white ; 
pith of shoots white. A small tree, but sometimes twenty feet 
high, and a stem a foot in diameter. Wood Hke that of all the 



FOREST TREES. 



219 



elders, very hard, but owing to large pith, only valuable for a 
few purposes. Common in California and southward, also in 
Oregon and Washington Territory, also in the valleys through- 
out the Rocky Mountain regions. The European Elder (S, race- 
mosa) is also common in the Rocky Mountains, and eastward 
in our more Northern States, in high, rocky situations, but the 
Eastern form is known as var. puhens, Michx. Our most com- 
mon species is the Black-Berried Elder {S, Canadensis), the fruit 
of which is extensively used for making a kind of wine or 
cordial. There are several ornamental varieties in cultivation, 
one with golden variegated leaves, another with silver variegat- 
ed, also a cut-leaved, and one with double white flowers. 

SAPinq'DUS^ Linn. — Soap-Berry. 

A genus of a dozen or more species of evergreen trees, prin- 
cipally tropical, noted for the saponaceous properties of the 
pulp {aril), surrounding the seeds of some of the species. This 
substance is used as a substitute for soap in South America, 
and is said to lather quite freely in water. The flowers are 
produced in axillary or terminal racemes or panicles. Leaves 
abruptly pinnate. Seeds horny. Two species inhabit our south- 
ern borders, 

Sapindus marginatns, Willd. — Soap-Berry. — Leaflets nine to 
eighteen, opposite or alternate, ovate-lanceolate, unequal-sided, 
strongly veined above ; panicles large, and dense flowered. 
Flowers white. Fruit globose. A tree from twenty to forty 
feet high from Georgia to Florida, and near the Coast westward 
to Southern Arizona, also in Mexico. 

S. Saponaria, L. — Soap-Berry. — A common tree in the West 
Indies, and said to be found sparingly in Southern Florida. The 
fruit known as Indian soap, they are as large as cherries, and 
the nut-like seed shining black, and were formally much used 
in England for buttons, sometimes being tipped with silver. 

SASSAFRAS;, Nees. — Sassafras, 

A genus of the Lauracece or Laurel Family, and still classed 
in many botanical works under the generic name of Laiirus. A 
well known tree with small greenish or whitish flowers in 
clustered racemes, appearing before the leaves. We have only 
one species, the 

Sassafras officinale, Nees. — Sassafras.— Leaves deciduous, ovate 
entire, or two to three-lobed, smooth or pubescent, exceedingly 



220 



PRACTICAL FORESTET. 



"variable in size and shape on the same tree. Fruit blue, on thick 
red petioles. The pulp thin, but of a succulent, rather spicy fla- 
vor, greedily eaten w^hen ripe by birds. The bark, and especially 
that on the roots strongly aromatic, and formerly was in high 
repute as a medicine for various diseases. It is still in some 
demand, as the bark of the roots is a powerful stimulant ; but 
the oil distilled from the roots is now of more commercial im- 
portance, it being extensively used in imparting flavor to candies 
and similar articles. A rather handsome tree, fifty to sixty feet 
high in favorable soils, with a stem two feet in diameter. Wood 
reddish in very old trees, moderately bard, easily worked, and 
considered very dm-able. Bark on young twigs very smooth, 
and of a deep green color, but on older branches and stems 
rough, of a grayish color, and deejDly furrowed. The roots pro- 
duce suckers in great abundance, and these are not readily de- 
stroyed as their roots penetrate the soil to a great depth. Com- 
mon on light soils, river banks, and in rocky woods, from 
Canada to Florida, and west to Texas. 

SCH^FPERIA^ Jacq. — Crah Wood, 

A genus of the Celastracece or Staff -tree Family, with ever- 
green alternate leaves, and dioecious flowers ; very small, green- 
ish, and in axillary clusters. The one species found in the 
United States has been described under three different names, 
viz. S. completa, Swartz, and S. buxifolia^ Nutt., but now 
recognized as the 

Sehjefferia frntescens, Jacq. — Crab "Wood, Jamaica Boxwood. — 
Leaves obovate-oblong, entire, acute or obtuse, an inch and a 
half long. Flowers three to five in a cluster, the slender stalks 
arising from a wart-like peduncle. Fruit a two-celled, two- 
seeded drupe. A small tree, M ith a hard, coarse-grained wood. 
Southern Florida, and in the West Indies. 

A closely allied tree, the Schcepfia arborescens, E. and S., 
inhabiting the West Indies, is rej)orted to have been found in 
Southern Florida. It is, however, a very small tree of not much 
importance, although interesting to the botanist. 

SEBASTiAisriA, Muell. — Poiso7i Wood, 

Tropical or sub-tropical trees and shrubs, with milky juice ; 
alternate, serrate or crenate leaves. Flowers dioecious or monoe- 
cious without petals. 

Sebastiania laeida, Muell. — Shining-Leaved Poison Wood. — 



FOREST TREES. 



221 



Leaves smooth, coriacious,obovate-oblong, obtuse or emarginate, 
crenate. Fertile flowers, solitary or in pairs, with long stems ; 
sterile ones very minute in cylindrical spikes. Fruit, a capsule 
of three, one-celled, one-seeded, two-valved carpels. Described 
under the generic name of Excoecaria in Chapman's Flora of 
the South, Nuttall's Sylva, etc. A tree thirty to forty feet high, 
with yellowish-white, hard, and close-grained wood. In South 
Florida. 

SHEPHERDiA, Nutt. — RoMU Bevvy, 

A genus of only three species, all found in the United States, 
and in the more northern regions. They are small trees or 
shrubs, with dioecious flowers, the sterile with a four-pointed 
calyx, the fertile, with an urn-shaped, four-cleft calyx ; the 
fertile flowers much the smallest. Fruit small, red, yellow or 
scurfy. Only one species that grows to a hight of twenty feet. 

Slieplierdia argentea^ Nutt. — Buffalo BeiTy, Kabbit Berry. — 
Leaves oblong, ovate, silvery on both sides ; male flowers in 
clusters, the calyx yellow inside, but silvery on the outside ; 
female flowers very minute, scarcely noticeable on the plant 
without close inspection, as they are of a dull gray color. 
Fruit collected into clusters, sometimes in such abundance as 
to entirely surround the smaller branches, bright scarlet, re- 
sembling small currants ; juicy sub-acid and pleasant flavored. 
Excellent jelly is made from the fruit, and some persons think 
it superior to currant jelly. A handsome small tree, with 
grayish rough bark and hard wood. The branchlets are termi- 
nated by a sharp thorn, and for this, and other reasons, this 
species has been recommended for hedges in cold northern 
localities. As the two sexes of flowers are on different plants, it is 
necessary to at least have one of each growing near together in 
order to obtain fruit, and I do not know of any way of deter- 
mining the sex of the plants except by waiting until they come 
into bloom, then each should be labelled if they are to be trans- 
planted or set out for fruit, but one staminate will suflice for a 
half dozen pistillate plants, if set near together. The trees are 
readily pi'opagated from seed. Native of Northern New Mexico 
and through the Rocky Mountain regions, northward to British 
America. The two other native species are low shrubs, S. Can- 
adensis, Nutt. , is a low, scurfy shrub, with ovate leaves, and yel- 
lowish-red insipid fruit, found from Vermont, westward to the 
Pacific Ocean. >S^. rotundifolia, Parry, with small, crowded 



222 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



leaves, and scurfy fruit, is a low shrub, peculiar to the moun- 
tains of Southern Utah. 

siDEROXTLOX^ Linii. — Ironvjood, 

Tropical trees and shrubs of the Sapodilla Family. Flowers 
with a four-pointed calyx and corolla, five-cleft. Fruit, a small 
drupe, mostly one-celled and one-seeded, the kernel with 
abundant albumen. 

Sideroxylon Mastichodendron, Jacq. — Mastic Tree. — Leaves 
smooth, five to six inches long, very thin, elliptical, obtuse, wavy 
on the margins ; on slender petioles. Flowers few in a cluster and 
small. Fruit purplish, ovoid. A large tree in the West Indies, 
but only thirty to forty feet high at Key West, Florida. 

siMARUBA, Aublet. — Quassia. 

Trees or shrubs with bitter, milky juice, pinnate-alternate 
leaves, and small greenish monoecious or dioecious flowers. 
Fruit drupaceous and one-seeded. There are several tropical 
species, but only one coming within the United States. 

Simamba glauca, DC. — Bitter Wood. — Leaves and twigs 
smooth. Flowers dioecious ; leaflets four to eight, alternate 
and opposite, coriaceous, obovate or oblong, obtuse, paler 
beneath than above. Fruit oval, mostly sohtary. According 
to some authorities, a small tree or shrub. Chapman says, '*a 
large tree in South Florida." 

SOPHORA. — Linn. 

A genus of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, and of 
about twenty-five species, mainly in the warmer parts of the 
world, although a few inhabit the colder regions of Asia. 
Leaves unevenly pinnate, with few or many entire and some- 
times quite thick leaflets. Flowers showy, pea -shaped, suc- 
ceeded by large, thick pods, with several seeds. We have no 
indigenous species wortliy of any especial attention, and only 
one grows to the hight of twenty feet, and this is the 

Sopbora seenndiflora. — Lag. — Leaves evergreen. Flowers blue 
and quite showy ; sweet scented. A small tree, twenty to thirty 
feet high, with very hard, heavy yellow wood, said to be excel- 
lent for fuel. In groves near Matagorda Bay to Western Texas. 
Tiie next largest native species is S. a fflnis, Toit. and Gray. A 
large shrub, ten to fifteen feet feet high, with evergreen leaves, 
and very hard wood. In Arkansas and Eastern Texas. S, Ari- 



FOKEST TREES. 



233 



zonica, Watson, is a low, evergreen shrub, found in Western 
Arizona. The S. tomentosa, Linn., is a small evergreen 
shrub, four to six feet high, in Florida., along the coast. The 
Japan Sophora (S. Japonica) is a well-known ornamental tree, 
introduced many years ago. The weeping variety has long 
been a favorite tree for planting on lawns, as it is one of the 




Fig. 48.— FLOWER OF STUARTIA PENTAGTNIA. 



most picturesque and graceful of the pendulous-branched trees, 
and quite hardy in most of our Northern States. 

STUARTiA, Catesby. — Stuartia, 

A genus of only a few species of deciduous shrubs or small 
trees, belonging to the Camellia Family. Flowers large and 
showy, and highly prized ornamental plants. Fruit a five- 
celled pod, and with one to two small seeds in each. We have 



224 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



two native species, and one in cultivation, recently introduced 
from Japan. 

Stuartia pentagynia. — L.'Her. — Leaves oval-acute, finely pubes- 
cent, serrate. Flowers with five large crimped-edged petals, 
with pui-ple spot at the base. Flowers appear late in spring or 
early summer, and of the size and form shown in fig. 48. A 
• large shrub or small tree, from the mountains of North Caro- 
lina and Georgia. The wood very hard, white. The plants are 
hardy as far north as New York City, and in my grounds in 
Northern New Jersey. 

S. Yirginica. — Cav. — Leaves oval, thin serrulate, finely pubes- 
cent. Flowers two to three inches broad, with purple stamens. 
A large shmb or small tree, not hardy north of Washington, 
and found in shady woods from North CaroHna to Florida. 

S. Japonica is a rare shrub, introduced a few years ago from 
Japan by the Parsons & Sons Company, Flushing, N. Y. 
Flowers small, with yellow stamens. A variety of this, >S^. Ja- 
ponica grandiflora, has larger flowers than the species, both 
handsome and desirable ornamental shrubs. 

swiETEKiA, lAmi.—Maliogany. 

A genus of a few species of large evergreen tropical trees, 
highly valued for their excellent wood. Flowers small, green, 
or reddish-yellow, in spreading axillary panicles. Fruit a large 
five-celled and five-valved capsule containing seeds, imbricated 
in two row's. 

Swietenia Maliogonij Linn. — Mahogany Tree. — Leaves alternate, 
abruptly pinnate, and composed of six to ten opposite, entire, 
ovate-lanceolate leaflets. Flowers greenish-yellow, three-eighths 
of an inch broad. A large and rare tree in South Florida, but 
formerly very abundant in the West Lidies, but now becoming 
scarce, owing to the great demand for the wood, which is ex- 
tensively used for all kinds of cabinet work. 

SYMPiocos, Jsicq,— Sweet Leaf, 

A genus of about a half dozen species of small trees or 
shrubs, with evergreen or very persistent leaves, and small but 
showy flowers. The species are widely distributed in China, 
Japan, and in Mexico, and one in our Southern States, the last is 

Symplocos tinctorial L.'Her. — Sweet Leaf, Horse Sugar. — Leaves 
simple, smooth, oblong, rather persistent, almost evergreen. 
Flowers yellow, six to twelve in a sessile cluster. Fruit a one- 



FOREST TREES. 



325 



seeded berry. Leaves have a sweetish taste, and are greedily- 
devoured by cattle. A small tree with rather firm wood. Dela- 
ware and South to Florida, and westward to Louisiana. 

TiLiA, Linn. — Bassivood, Linden. 
A genus of only about a half dozen species of deciduous 
trees, inhabiting the temperate regions of Europe and America. 
They are all handsome and valuable trees, with soft and white 
wood. Leaves more or less heart-shaped ; often soft and downy. 
Flowers with five spatulate, oblong petals, cream-color and in 
small cymes or clusters, hanging on an axillary slender pedun- 
cle, which is attached to a long, slender, and thin leaf -like 
bract. Fruit a small globular nut, one-celled, and one or two- 
seeded. The flowers are fragrant and yield a large quantity of 
clear white delicate-flavored honey. We have but two indi- 
genous species. 

Tilia Amcrifana, Linn. — American Basswood. — Leaves four to 
six inches broad, smooth, and green on both sides, obliquely 
heart-shaped, sharply serrate. Bark and buds mucilaginous, 
the inner bark used for making bass-mats, also for coarse cord- 
age, and employed by nurserymen for tying in buds in the 
propagation of fruit, and other trees and plants. To prepare 
the bark for use it is stripped from the trees in spring, and 
placed in water until the mucilaginous properties have been 
dissolved, then taken out, and divided into thin layers. Wood 
white, soft, and light, easily worked, and extensively used for 
inside work of various kinds. A handsome large tree, sixty to 
eighty feet high, with stem two to four feet in diameter. Com- 
mon in moist soils, and along streams in all of the States east 
of the Eocky Mountains, except in the extreme Southern. , It is 
found in the mountains of Georgia, and northward to Canada 
and Lake Superior. 

Var. puhescens, Gray, has rather thin leaves, softly pubes- 
cent underneath. A smaller tree than the species, and is found 
in the swamps of North Carolina and Florida, near the coast. 

Var. macrophylla is a cultivated variety, with leaves much 
larger than those of the species, and is a very handsome, rapid 
growing tree. 

T. hcterophylla, Vent. — White Basswood. — Leaves large, often 
eight inches broad, smooth and bright green above, silvery- 
white, and downy underneath. A handsome tree, thirty to 
fifty feet high, in the mountains of Pennsylvania, Kentucky, 
and southward to North Carolina and Georgia. 



226 



PEACTICAL FOKESTRT. 



FOREIG^^ SPECIES AKD YARIETIES. 

Some of the European botanists make several species of the 
different forms or varieties of the Tilia Europcea, while others 
consider them as all belonging to one. For all practical pur- 
poses they may be considered as one with many well marked and 
interesting varieties. The most common European Linden has 
large, deep green leaves, but distinguished from the American 
species by the absence of the petal-like scales among the sta- 
mens in the flowers. The tree grows to a very large size, and 
many of them from fifty to a hundred years old, may be found 
in and about our Eastern cities and villages. The wood is simi- 
lar to that of the American Basswood, but the twigs are more 
numerous and slender, and the tree is of a more compact habit 
than that of the T. Americana, The following are some of the 
most common and desirable varieties of the European species, 
(T, Europcea). 

Var. alha or argentea, a very graceful, vigorous-growing tree, 
with whitish leaves. — Yar. alba pendula, a weeping variety of 
the last, with slender twigs and whitish leaves. — Var. alba pen- 
clula variegata, sl weeping variety with variegated leaves. — 
Var. aurea, the bark on the twigs of a bright golden color in 
winter. — Var. aurea platipliylla, twigs yellow, but leaves long- 
er than in the above. — ^Var. dasystyla, a variety or species 
from Tauria, with large, heart-shaped dark-green leaves, and 
yellow twigs. Some authorities consider this a distinct spe- 
cies. — Var. laciniata, leaves finely divided, orcut and twisted. — 
Var. laciniata rubra, leaves finely cut, and the bark on young 
twigs red in winter. — ^Var. platiphylla, similar to the species, 
but with somewhat larger leaves. — ^Var. pyramidalis, a tree of 
rapid growth and pyramidal habit, and reddish bark on the 
twigs. — Var. rubra, the common red-twigged European Lin- 
den. — Var. vitifolia, leaves resembling those of the grape vine ; 
bark on young twigs bright red. 

ULMUS, Linn. — Ehm 

A genus of less than twenty species, but an immense number 
of wild and cultivated varieties, principally native of North 
America and Europe. They are mostly lofty, deciduous trees 
of rapid growth. Flowers usually perfect, yellowish or purp- 
lish in lateral clusters ; in our species appearing in spring, 
before the leaves. Fruit a one-celled and one-seeded membrane- 
ous samara, winged all round. Propagated by seeds, layers, or 



FOKEST TREES. 



227 



budding and grafting. All the species produce a large number 
of tough, fibrous roots, not at all diflicult to make grow when 
transplanted. 

rimns alata, Michx. — Winged Elm, Small-leaved Elm, Wha- 
hoo. — Leaves ovate- oblong, one inch to an inch and a half 
long, sharply serrate, acute, commonly rounded at the base, 
rough above and downy beneath. Flowers clustered on slender 
stalks. Fruit oval and downy on the margins. A small tree, 
thirty to forty feet high, with corky branches and hard, com- 
pact wood, very difficult to split, and for this reason extensively 
employed for the hubs of wagon and carriage wheels. In Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky, and southward, also west of the Mississippi, 
in Nebraska, and south to Texas. 

r. Americana^ Willd. — ^^American Elm. — Small branches and 
twigs smooth. Leaves three to four inches long, thin, obovate- 
oblong or oval, abruptly pointed, sharply serrate, rather soft 
and velvety beneath. Flowers in close clusters or bundles. 
Fruit smooth, except on the margins. A well known, very 
large and common tree, with a wide spreading head and long, 
slender, drooping branches. Wood brown, very tough in young 
trees, light and moderately strong in the old, always difficult 
to split, extensively used in the manufacture of hubs, small 
trees being used for this purpose. The wood of large trees used 
for planks, chair seats, and various other purposes where it is 
not exposed to the weather. Common in moist soils through- 
out the United States and Canada, east of the Eocky Moun- 
tains. 

U. crassifolia^ Nutt. — Small-leaved Elm, Opaque-leaved Elm. — 
Leaves small, only about an inch long, oblong-oval, rough, 
serrate. Fruit small, oval or elliptic, rather deeply divided or 
toothed at the summit. Young branches smooth, thickly 
studded with leaves. A curious and handsome little tree in 
Southwestern Arkansas to Southern Texas. Figured and de- 
scribed in Nuttall's North American Sylva, Vol. 4, under the 
name of Z7. opaca. 

U. fulva, Michx. — Slippery Elm, Red Elm. — Buds in spring 
soft and downy, with large rusty hairs, branches also some- 
what downy. Leaves thick, ovate-oblong, taper-pointed, 
doubly serrate, very rough above, velvety beneath, often six to 
eight inches long. Inner bark very mucilaginous, and exten- 
sively employed as a medicine. A medium sized tree, with red- 



228 



PKACTICAL FORESTKY. 



dish hard wood, more durable than that of any other indige- 
nous species, and is often used for fence posts and rails. 

U. racemosa, Thomas.— Corky White Elm.— Twigs and bud 
scales downy, and branches often with corky ridges. Leaves 
obovate-oblong, oblique at the base, sharply serrate. Flowers 
in racemes, and not in compact or close clusters, as in our 
other native species. Fruit smooth, oval or elliptic, very downy, 
with the margins thickly fringed. A large tree, with fine- 
grained, heavy, tough wood, superior to that of any other in- 
digenous elm for purposes where toughness and elasticity is 
required. Common in Western New York, Ontario, and west 
to Nebraska. Also said to be found in Ohio, Michigan and 
Kentucky. 

FOREIGN SPECIES AKD VARIETIES. 

The elms are all so inclined to vary from seed, that it is often 
difficult to determine the original type of a species, as well as to 
determine to what species many of the cultivated varieties be- 
long. What is called the English Elm (Ulmus campestris), was 
early introduced into this country, and quite extensively planted 
in and about Boston, where at this time some of the most noble 
specimens of this tree can now be seen in full maturity, and of 
great age. The leaves of this species differ from our common 
American Elms, in being smaller and of a darker green color, 
and the branches spring out from the main stem more nearly at 
right angles, and the general form of the head is more inclined 
to be pyramidal than broadest at the top, as usual with our 
American White Elm, which has been so extensively planted in 
nearly all New England cities and villages. The English Cork- 
bark Elm {Ulmus suberosa) is a variety of the last, with its 
young branches very corky, with rougher and much larger 
leaves, while the variety known as the Dutch Cork-bark {U. 
major), has still larger leaves, and of a more spreading habit of 
growth. Some of the largest specimens of both the English and 
Dutch Cork-bark Elms to be found in this country, are to be 
seen on Long Island, near Glen Cove and eastward, some of 
them probably are two centuries old. 

The Scotch or Wych Elm ( U. montana) is a noble tree, with 
wide spreading branches, and although not so well known in 
this country as the English or Dutch Cork-bark, still of late 
years it has been more largely planted than formerly. There is 
a weeping variety, the (^7. m. pendula), and a smooth-leaved 



FOREST TREES. 



239 



one ( U. m. glabra), also another known as the Exeter Elm {U, m. 
fastigiata), noted for its peculiar fastigiate growth and twisted 
leaves. There are also, in addition to the varieties named, at 
least a score of others of similar origin, described in nursery- 
men's catalogues, all desirable for ornamental purposes. 

UMBELLULARiA, Nutt. — Spine Tree. 

A genus closely allied to the Sassafras Tree of our Eastern 
States, but found only on our West Coast. Flowers yellowish- 
green ; perfect in pedunculate umbels, which are enclosed be- 
fore expansion in a four-bracted involucre. A tree with thick, 
fragrant, evergreen leaves. Only one species. 

Umbellnlaria Caiifornica, Nutt. — Spice Tree, Mountain Laurel. — 
Leaves green and shining, lanceolate-oblong, acute at each end, 
or sometimes rounded at base, two to four inches long, short 
petioled. Fruit an ovate- 
elliptical or globose drupe, 
nearly an inch long, dark 
purple, with thin pulp and 
stone. The foliage is ex- 
ceedingly acrid, exhaling a 
pungent odor, which excites 
sneezing. This tree is also 
known as the California 
Olive, California Laurel, Ca- 
jeput, etc., etc. The fruit 
is very persistent, remainiug 
on the trees all winter. A 
small tree in the Coast 
Ranges of California, but 
extending northward to 
Oregon, where it grows to a ^. 

, . « T Fig. 49.— SPANISH BUCKEYE. 

hight of nearly or quite one * 

hundred feet, and a stem two to four feet in diameter. Wood 
of a brownish color, close-grained, handsome and valuable, 
much used for cabinet work and wainscoting. 

UKGKADiA, Endl. — Spanish BncTceye. 

A genus of only a single species, but closely related to the 
Horse-chestnuts or Buckeyes. It is quite remarkable for having 
the foliage of a Hickory, and flowers and fruit resembling 
those of the Buckeye. 

Ungnadia speciosa^ Endl. — Spanish Buckeye, — Leaves composed 




230 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



of seven opposite, ovate, long-pointed serrate leaflets. Flowers 
rose-color, about a half inch broad, either perfect, or the stami- 
nate and pistillate separate on the same plant. Flowers in 
sufficient numbers to make the plant quite showy in spring. 
Fruit in a leathery capsule, the size and form shown in fig. 49. 
The kernel of the nut rather pleasant tasted, but unwholesome, 
containing marked emetic properties. A small, handsome tree, 
tw^enty feet high, but more commonly a shrub. In Texas and 
Eastern New Mexico. Cultivated in the South as an ornament- 
al tree, also in France, but said to be somewhat tender in the 
gardens of Paris. Propagated from seeds, suckers, or by graft- 
ing on stocks of the common Western Buckeye. 

YiBURKUM, Linn. — Arrotu-Wood, Etc, 

A large genus of evergreen and deciduous shrubs, a few are 
small trees, with simple, but commonly toothed, and sometimes 
deeply lobed leaves. Flowers showy, mostly white, in com- 
pound, terminal, flattish clusters. Fruit a drupe, containing a 
single flattish seed. The genus is represented by about a dozen 
species in the United States, two of which extend entirely- 
across the continent. Only two or three of our indigenous spe- 
cies grow to a hight of twenty feet. 

Yiburniun Leutago, Linn. — Sheep Berry. — Leaves ovate, strongly 
pointed, very sharply serrate, smooth, the long margined peti- 
oles and midrib, sprinkled with rusty-colored glands. Flowers 
white, slightly fragrant. Fruit oval, about a half inch long, 
blue-black, with a sweetish, rather mealy edible pulp. A hand- 
some little tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, with hard, yellow- 
ish, strongly-scented wood. From Hudson's Bay in British 
America, southward to Georgia, in moist soils, also west to 
Iowa. 

V. prnKirolium, Linn. — Black Haw. — Leaves broadly oval, ob- 
tuse at both ends, finely and sharply serrate, smooth and shin- 
ing above. Flowers in large sessile clusters. Fruit ovoid-oblong, 
black, edible. A common large shrub or small tree, fifteen to 
twenty feet high, in dry, rich woods, from the New England 
States, south to Florida, and westward to Texas and Missouri. 

Y. Opulus, Linn. — Cranberry Tree. — Leaves strongly three- 
lobed, broadly wedge-shaped or truncate at base, the lobes 
pointed and toothed on the sides, entire in the sinuses. Mar- 
ginal flowers of the cluster destitute of stamens and pistils, but 
many times larger than the other, forming a kind of ray, which 



FOKEST TREES. 



231 



is quite showy. Fruit ovoid, bright red, pulp very acid, but is 
sometimes used as a substitute for cranberries. This is the par- 
ent of the well known Guelder Rose or Snowball of gardens, in 
which the flowers are all sterile. A handsome large shrub, 
sometimes twenty feet high in swamps in the Northern States, 
and westward extending to the Pacific Coast in Oregon and 
northward. The remaining indigenous sx)ecies are either small 
or large shrubs, seldom over ten feet high, but interesting orna- 
mental plants. 

XAKTHOXYLUM^ Liiiii. — Prichly Ash, 

A large genus, the species mostly tropical or sub-tropical ever- 
green trees or shrubs, with minute monoecious or dioecious 
flowers,with unequally pinnate leaves, and branches armed with 
prickles or strong spmes. Bark, leaves and fruit usually 
pungent and aromatic. The fruit of bne or two Asiatic species 
is used in China and Japan as an antidote for nearly all kinds 
of poisons, and one as a substitute for pepper. We have four 
indigenous species. 

Xanthoxylum Caribseumj Lam. — Satin Wood. — Branches and 
leaf -stalks unarmed ; leaflets five to seven, ovate-lanceolate, on 
the fertile plant, and elliptical, obtuse, or emarginate on the 
sterile. Seed solitary, obovate, black and shining. Said to have 
been discovered at Key West, Florida, by Dr. Blodget, and to 
be a large and common tree in that region. 

X. ClaTa-HercnIiSj Linn. — Tooth-ache Tree, Prickly Ash. — 
Branches and leaf-stalks armed with long prickles. Leaves 
alternate, seven to nine f oliolate ; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, cre- 
nate, sliining above ; panicles terminal. Fruit rather downy, 
containing black seed. A small tree, about twenty feet high 
in Southern Virginia to Florida, but in the West Indies it 
grows forty or more feet high. Wood yellow, close-grained, 
and according to Sloane, has the aromatic odor of Sandal- wood. 
The leaves, bark and fruit have a pungent aromatic taste. 

X. Pterota, H., B., K. — Bastard Iron Wood. — Branches very 
crooked, armed with short, curved spines, and the leaf-stalks 
winged and jointed. Leaflets seven to nine, only one half to 
three-fourths of an inch long ; obovate and crenate above the 
middle. Flowers in axillary clusters. Fruit about the size of a 
grain of black pepper, containing one smooth dark-brown seed. 
A small shrub or tree, with very hard, yellow wood. Southern 
Florida, west to Texas, also south to Brazil. 



t 



232 PKACTICAL FORESTKY. 

X. Americannm, Mill. — Northern Prickly Ash. — ^Leaves com- 
posed of four or five pairs of leaflets, and an odd one ; ovate- 
oblong, downy when young. Flowers minute, yellowish- 
green, appearing with the leaves. Fruit small, in clusters, red, 
and ripe in autumn, very pungent tasted, and often used as a 
medicine, sometimes for tooth-ache, hence one of the common 
names of this shrub. A large shrub, ten or more feet high, 
with prickly branches and smooth grayish bark. In rocky 
woods, often along roadsides. Middle and JSTorthern States. 

xiMEi^iA, Plumier. — Hog Plum, 

A genus of a few species of small evergreen trees, mostly 
tropical, with thorny branches, producing handsome plum-like 
edible fruit. We have only one species. 

Ximcnia Americana, Linn. — Hog-Plum, Mountain Plum. — 
Leaves two inches long, oblong-obtuse, short petioled ; pedun- 
cles two to four flowered. Flowers smaU, yellow. Fruit yel- 
lowish, round, as large as a plum, edible. Nut round and 
white. A small tree with yellow wood. Key West, Florida, 
and through the West Indies. 

zisYPHUS, Juss. — Jujube, 

A genus of some fifty species, mainly in Egypt and Southern 
Asia. The Z. jujiibe is widely distributed throughout Southern 
Europe and Northern Africa, and its dried fruit well known in 
commerce. The species in general are spiny shrubs or small 
trees belonging to the Rhamnacce or Buckthorn Family, and 
often bearing edible fruit. The genus is represented with us by 
two species, neither of any especial value. One in Southern 
California, the Z. Parry % Torrey, growing about fifteen feet 
high, and another, the Z. ohtusifolius, Gray, in Western Texas 
and New Mexico, is sometimes a small tree, twenty feet high, 
but more frequently a shrub. 



EYEEGKEEK TEEES. 



233 



CHAPTEE XVIo 
EVERGREEN TREES. 

TAXACE^. — Yeto, Torreya, Etc. 

An order of several genera, principally evergreen trees or 
shrubs, closely allied and usually included in the Coniferse as a 
sub-family, but as their fruit resembles the drupaceous, rather 
than the coniferous, some of our more modern botanists have 
very properly placed them in a separate group or order preced- 
ing the true cone-bearing genera. They are but slightly res- 
inous. Flowers dioecious, the sterile ones in globose catkins, 
the fertile solitary, axillary, and the fruit drupe-like, with a 
pulp surrounding, but not always quite enclosing the bony nut- 
like seed. This order is represented in the United States by only 
two genera, and four, or at most five species. 

TAXUS^ Tour. — The Veto. 

Small trees or shrubs with widely spreading branches and 
linear, rather flat rigid leaves. Fertile flower, scaly bracted, 
consisting of a single ovule or cup-like disk, which becomes 
large and berry-like, surrounding the nut -like seed. There are 
in all seven recognized species, three belong to the United 
States, one in Mexico, and the others to the cooler regions of 
Europe and Asia. 

Taxes baceata. Linn. — Var. Canadensis, Gray. — American Yew. 
— The American or Canada Yew was by the older botanists con- 
sidered a distinct species from the English Yew, T, baccata, but 
Dr. Gray and others of our times give it no higher rank than a 
well defined variety. It is in every way quite similar to the 
English Yew, except it is merely a low, straggling shrub, only 
three or four feet high. It is common in our Northeastern 
States, and occasionally along the mountains to Virginia. 
Leaves about an inch long, linear, numerous, mostly arranged 
on two rows, but sometimes scattered thickly around the termi- 
nal shoots. The fruit consists of a globular, red fleshy disk sur- 
rounding, but not quite covering at the top the nut-like seed. 
The species or English Yew grows to a large-sized tree, and 
lives to a great age, and is historically one of the most noted 
trees in the world. There are many varieties, most of which 



234 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



succeed in this country if planted in a half shady position or 
protected from the scorching rays of the sun. All are readily 
propagated from either green or ripe wood. 

T. brevi folia, Nutt. — Western Yew. — Leaves nearly an inch 
long, sharp-pointed, the margin somewhat re volute, bright 
gre3n above, pale beneath, narrowed at the base into a short 
slender petiole. Fruit amber-red, much flattened. A tree 
twenty to sixty feet high, with long, slender, somewhat droop- 
ing branches. Wood reddish, hard and tough, very elastic, and 
like that of all of the Yew Family, valuable for many purposes. 
This species is found in Central California, northward to British 
Columbia. 

T. Floridana, Nutt. — Florida Yew. — Leaves quite narrow and 
sharp-pointed, with re volute margins, closely resembling those 
of the last. A small tree on the banks of the Apalachicola 
Eivcr in Florida, and may prove to be only a local variety of 
the last. 

The Mexican Yew, T, glohosa, is a tender species, and will 
not thrive in the open air in the mild climate of England, and 
is of no especial interest to any one except the botanist. The 
Japan species are more hardy, especially a dwarf one known as 
T. adpressa, which has very small, oval leaves, short-pointed 
and pale pink fruit. Another, the T. cuspidata,of Siebold, is a 
much taller tree, with larger, rather thick rigid and exceedingly 
sharp-pointed leaves. 

TORRE YA, Arnott. — Fetid Yeto, 

A genus of evergreen trees, including four species each, 
restricted to a locality of limited extent. Leaves larger and 
longer than those of the common yews, and arranged in single 
rows. Flowers similar to those of the Taxiis, and seed enclosed 
in a fibrous fleshy envelope of a greenish-brown color. This 
genus was named in honor of the late Prof. John Torrey, of 
New York. 

Torrcya CaHfornifa, Torr. — California Nutmeg. — Leaves one to 
three inches long, and about an eighth of an inch broad, nearly 
flat, sharp-pointed, the petioles somewhat twisted, bringing the 
blades into two ranks, bright green above, lighter colored be- 
neath. The fruit obovate to oblong-ovate, one inch to an inch 
and a half long, the fleshy envelope thin and somewhat resin- 
ous. Wood light-colored, close-grained, compact, and very 
fragrant. A large tree of fifty to seventy-five feet high, with 



EVERGREEN TREES. 



stcMU ono to tliroo foci in (li:nn(>l(M-. Califoniia, from MtMuiociiio 
County to I\lari[)()s;i ( 'ountv. 

T. taxifolia, Am. — Stinking CiHlar. — liCiivi^s about an iiu li and 
:i liair lon^, very sliarp-|)()inttHl, rij;i(l, almost st'ssil(% pale shin- 
ing L!,rrc'n. I5ran(;lu\s horizontal spnvulin^*, witli somewhat two 
rounded branehlets. Fruit about tlu» sizi» and shapi^ of a mit- 
juefj^, with a smooth bark or shell. A small branehli^t is vc\) 
resented in 11 «^u re 50, about t wo-1 birds of 1 he natural siz<\ A 
small tree, twoiity to I'orty feet high, witii odorii'erous and very 




durabh^ wood. In nnddle l*'loii(la. This specie's has proved 
(piite hardy in favorabh* soils and locations as far north as tlu» 
( 'ilyof N(^w York, and in a few instiinces farther north, but 
eaiuiot be; recommended for general eultivatiou except in the 
South. 

roitMKiN SIM":(MKB. 

'I', niicironi, Zueeariin. — Nul-bcarin^- Torn^ya. — TiCVives as in our 
na.tiv(» sj)ecies, bnl of a, dai'k ;^lossy-/^reen coloi*. Hranchcs 
numerous, with scaly barU. P'ruil, (♦^^fjj-Hhapcd, and about an 
inch Ion*:;. A t.i'c(» from foi ty to sixty feet hi«^h, nali\'c oi' {\n) 
West (yoast of Ni|)pofi, .lapan. Not thorouj;hly t<'sled in t his 
coiuitry, its liardine ; ; i ; somcNv hat doubtful in our Ni)r(iiei-n 



236 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



States, but will probably succeed south of the latitude of Wash- 
ington. 

T. grandis, Fortune. — Tall Torrej^a. — Leaves slightly shorter 
than the last, slightly convex above. Fruit plum-shaped, and 
about three-quarters of an inch long. This species is scarcely 
distinguishable from the last. Native of China and the Hima- 
layas. A tree forty to fifty feet high. 

The Chinese Yews, or Cephalotaxus, of which there are two 
or three species, would naturally fall into this group, but we 
have no representatives nearer than the Torreya's in our flora. 

The Podocarpece, evergreen trees and shrubs, pecuHar to the 
warmer regions of Australia, Africa, and Asia, belong to this 
order, but only a few are' of any special interest, except for or- 
namental purposes. The Japanese species (P. Japonica) Sie- 
bold, thrives moderately well as far north as New York, and is 
an interesting plant on account of its very dark, rigid leaves. 
There is also a South American species (P. nuhigcend), that 
promises to be even more hardy than the one from Japan, as it 
is a native of the cool regions of Chili and Patagonia. 

The New Zealand Pines, or Dacridiums, also belong to this 
order, as they bear drupaceous fruit, like that of the Yews. 
Some are large trees, and the wood very hard and durable. They 
may prove valuable for cultivation in our Southern States and 
westward. 

Another very interesting genus of this order is represented 
by only a single species, and that the well known Ginkgo or 
Maiden Hair Tree, or Salisbury adiantifolia, sl native of China 
and Japan, and a tree that grows to a very large size, or in some 
situations a hundred feet high, with stem five to ten feet in 
diameter. Its leaves are deciduous, fan-shaped, very broad, and 
cut or notched at the apex. Its fruit is a globular ovate, and 
an inch in diameter. It is a well known hardy tree, introduced 
into this country a century ago, or in 1784, by Alexander Ham- 
ilton, who planted specimens near Philadelphia, which are said 
to be still alive and growing. There are several varieties, but 
none that are really more beautiful than the species. 



CONIPEEiE, OR COKE-BEARII^^^G TKEES. 



237 



CHAPTEE XVII. 
CONIFERS, OR CONE-BEARING TREES. 

Many volumes have been written, avowedly for the pur- 
pose of giving a correct classification of the cone-bearing 
trees of the world, but the authors of no two of them agree, 
except as to some of the most simple characteristics of the differ- 
ent genera and species, and the result is, a confusion that may 
well astound the novice who desires to find an authority at 
once unimpeachable, and so thoroughly trustworthy, that it 
may in all cases be quoted without fear of being led into an 
error. Even in such a simple matter as names of the different 
species of conifers, authors disagree, and often so widely that no 
one but a student, or one well versed in the literature of the 
subject, can possibly reach a satisfactory conclusion as to the 
identity of any but the oldest and most familiar. 

It is true that such European botanists as Tournefert, Lam- 
bert, Linnaeus, Endlicher, Loudon, Lawson, and the more mod- 
ern writers like Gordon, Masters, and Veitch, have aided, and 
in fact have done some good work in elaborating the various 
genera of which this great Natural Order of plants is composed, 
but there is yet much material left in an unsatisfactory condi- 
tion, owing probably in part to the innate difficulties surround- 
ing the subject, and partly to the lack of the scientific knowl- 
edge necessary to trace the affinities and relationship of the 
different species and genera. But I am inclined to believe that 
much of the confusion that exists in regard to the classification 
and the names of the different species of conifers, is the result 
of prejudice and personal opinion, with a desire on the part of 
each author to set up a standard of his own, which, to be satis- 
factory to himself, must differ more or less from that estab- 
lished by rival authors. I may be wrong in this matter, but I 
cannot well attribute the idiopathies of several of the most 
noted European authors to any other cause. We certainly can- 
not accuse them of ignorance, or of not being familiar with the 
writings of others on the same subject, for their works show 
quite the contrary. Still, when we find men ignoring science, 
in order to laud a hero as Yeitch, Gordon, and nearly all Eng- 
lish authors do, in giving the generic name of the Mammoth 
Tree of California as Wellingtonia, instead of the correct one of 



238 



rEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Sequoia, we cannot but distmst them in other matters. But 
such vagaries of authors are not confined to those of our times, 
for even the revered Linneeus reversed the generic names of 
the Firs and Spruces, ignoring the classification of those who 
had lived long before his time. The continental botanists and 
nurserymen, however, have in most instances retained the older 
classifications, placing the Spruces under the generic name of 
Picea, and the Firs under Abies, while the English and most of 
our American authors have followed Linnaeus, although there 
can be no question as to its inaccuracy. 

The North American Coniferae have been carefully elaborated 
in the works of Drs. Gray, Chapman, Engelmann, and other 
botanists, but our most comprehensive and best special treatise 
on the conifera3, is " The Book of Evergreens," by Josiah Hoopes. 
This is a work that I can confidentially recommend to those 
who may desire a more scientific description and classification 
of either the indigenous or foreign species than will be given in 
the foUowmg pages. Owing to the confusion referred to in 
regard to the classification of our coniferse, I may in some in- 
stances depart from the alphabetical arrangement of the pre- 
ceding pages, and place the different genera in the order of 
the relationship instead. 

juxiPERUS, Linn. — Juniper, 

An immense genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, and the 
species widely distributed, and in almost every degree of lati- 
tude, although principally in the Northern Hemisphere. The 
wood of all the species is fine-grained, bard and durable, the 
heart wood usually reddish and fragi^ant. Flowers dioecious or 
sometimes monoecious, the small, solitary catkins, axillary or 
terminal, upon short lateral twigs. Fruit a scaly bracted drupe, 
and in some species resembling a berry, more than a true cone, 
usually emitting a strong resinous odor, and containing one to 
three hard-shelled seeds. Leaves small, scale-like, persistent 
and rigid. All readily propagated by seeds or cuttings of the 
small branchlets, also by layers and grafting. 

Jnniperns Californica, Carr. — California Juniper. — Leaves in 
clusters of three, short, thick, and mostly acute. Fruit oblong- 
ovate, of six or rarely four scales, usually one-seeded, and of a 
reddish color when ripe. A small shrub, or sometimes a tree, 
twenty to thirty feet high, with rather stout branches. Cali- 
fornia, in the Coast Ranges, from the Sacramento River south- 
ward to San Diego. 



C'OXIFKRyK, Ofi COXE-BEAEIXG TRKES. 



230 



Var. UtahemiH, Eri;{f;lrn., lias more Hk;nd<^;r branch lots. Fruit 
rovLvA SLud smaller. It irihabitB the HU^mi Nevarla, B<^/iithcm 
Utah, and Arizrjna. 

J. eommonis, Linn. — Common JunifK.r. — l^/d,vft<i rath^^^r lon;^, 
\m(/dx, awl-fthafx;d, prickJy-[K^intod, upj:><;r Burface white, glau- 
rynLB, under one bright '^(ian. Fruit small, r^/und, fl^irk ywryhif 
covered with a light bkx^rn. A low, straggling shrub or small 
tree, HfMoia more- thiari t<^:n or twelve feet high. 17jis hI)(:(:U,'H 
may well be called common, as it is a native of Asia, Eurojie, 
and extends entirely acrr^s North America. Tlie berrie-s of this 
r^'ies arr; employed in giving the x><;culiar flavor to gin, and 
J oil extracted from them is ab^; use^l in medicine. There is 
J immense numU^r of varietie-s of this sj^'cie-s in cultivation, 
iO wn undz-r such names as Irish Junip^^r, Swedish Juni[X;r, 
-j>arilsh Junijx.-r, Large-fruited J unijK.r, Weex>in^, Creeping or 
i^rostrate, and many others more or If^ss common in nurseries 
and ornamental grounds. 

J. OfHdfDtalln, U^xjIc. — Wf^fjtem Junipfjr. — A sp^,<;ies very much 
resembling the California Junip^.-r, Imt the fruit is smaller, 
blue-black, and the fle-shy envelof^^ re-<iinr/u,s. A large tree in 
Orf^on, l>ut Ixrcoming a mere shrub furt?ier south in California, 
There are s^;veral natural varieties. Var. mrMOfffjerma, Engel rn. , 
is a smaU shrub in Texiis, west to Arizr>na, and northward tr> 
Colora/^lo. Var. crmpmgms, Engelm., is said to Ix; quite abund- 
ant in Western Texas and New Mexico, in fact the two vari/^- 
ties as well as the sjxrcies ai^xxrar to be only climatic fr/rms of 
the common Junixi^'r. Tlie tre-<rs are ustially crrxAe-^l and dis- 
torted, but the limYjftr is Iiard and uihk(:H excelk-nt fu/^:L 

pafhyphlca. — Torr. — Tlib is another of thos^; \ff:f:xx\\wc west- 
em forms of the Junix^rr, more or k-f:s common in New Mr*xico 
and Arizona. An exce-^rdingly slow-growing trf^r;, an/1 Dr. En- 
gelmann says that s^^rne tre-^^s, two hundred years old, have a 
diameter of only fonr to six inclies, but an occasional sx^^'imen 
is tffxxnfi with a (liaLiaf :ter of two to thrf^e f^^j^-t, but th/;s/; are 
usually found in rich, rathf-r rnr^ist soiis, and in sli/.-ltered x>^^i- 
tir^ii^s. 

J. Virsriniaaa. I^ — Eed Cellar. — I>^ves v^^ry small, f-xale-iike 
on the oWer branches, but larger on the ywng twigs ^/r branch- 
lets ; Tery numerous, closely imbricated, and of a dark green 
color. Branches usually horizontal, but in s^>me s^/ils upright, 
coTered with a thin, scaly bark. Fruit small, dark-x/urple, 
covered with a whitish bloom. A very common and well 



340 



PEACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



known tree, the heart wood of reddish color and very durable. 
It is largely employed for cabinet work, pencils, fence posts, 
etc. A very widely distributed species, extending from New 
Brunswick to Washington Territory, and southward, in the 
East to Florida, but is said not to have been found in Calif ornia, 
and is rare in the Eocky Mountains. An exceedingly variable 
species, sometimes a tree sixty to eighty feet high, but the most 
usual size in the Eastern States is between thirty and forty. I 
consider this the most valuable of all the Junipers, adapted to 
the chmate of the United States, and should take precedence of 
others for planting in forests or for other useful purposes. 

There is a large number of foreign species that thrive in this 
country, and especially those inhabiting China and Japan, and 
while they are of interest to the botanist, and are desirable for 
ornamental plantations, they i)ossess no valuable economic 
properties not common to our indigenous species. 

CUPRESSUS, Tour. — Cypress. 

A genus of evergreen trees closely allied to the Junipers, but 
with monoecious flowers, with the aments or catkins terminal, 
and of a few pairs of opposite scales. The fertile catkins erect 
on short lateral branchlets, of six to ten thick scales, becoming 
a roundish woody cone. Seeds acutely angled. Leaves small, 
scale-like adnate, and appressed, opposite and imbricated. 

Cupressus Goyeniaiiaj Gordon. — California Cypress. — Leaves 
bright green, quite small, thick, and without lateral depressions. 
Cones small, roimd, a Httle less than an inch in diameter, and 
composed of from six to eight scales. A shrub or small bushy 
tree, six to ten feet high or sometimes more. Li the Coast 
Eanges of California. Not hardy in our Northern States. 

€. Macuabiana, Murr. — McNab's Cypress. — Leaves very small, 
deep green, somewhat glaucous, conspicuously pitted on the 
back. Mature cones small, round, a little more than a half inch 
in diameter. A shrub six to ten feet high, with numerous 
slender branchlets. About clear lakes, and on Mount Shasta, 
California. Hardy in England, and may thrive in protected 
situations in our Middle States. 

C. macrocarpa, Hartwig. — Monterey Cypress. — Leaves bright 
green, acute, obscurely pitted on the back, often with a longi- 
tudinal furrow on each side. Scales of young cones with f olia- 
ceous tips, mature cones clustered on shoi*t, stout peduncles, 
one to one and a half inch long, and nearly an inch in diame- 



COKIFER^^ OR CONE-BEARIKG TREES. 241 



ter, with five or six pairs of scales, and about twenty seeds to 
each. A large tree, forty to seventy feet high, with rough 
bark and widely spreading branches. On granite rocks near the 
sea, in California, near Monterey, and southward. Hardy in 
England, and thrives in our Southern States, but tender in the 
Northern. This species was early introduced into Europe, and 
from which several varieties have been produced. 

CHAM.^:cYPARis^ Spach. — Cyjjress, 

Trees with the characteristics of the Cupressus, but flattened 
two ranked branchlets, and the small globose cones maturing 
the first year. The seeds are also less numerous. In very few 
botanical works are these trees se]Darated from the Cypress, and 
the reader can take his choice in the name of the genus, and 
still have excellent authorities for establishing the correctness 
of either. 

CliamsecypaTis Lawsoniana, Parlat. — Lawson Cyi)ress. — Leaves 
small, deep green, with a whitish margin when young, mostly 
with a gland on the back. Cones small, about a third of an 
inch in diameter, of eight or ten scales, with the flattened sum- 
mit terminated by a narrow transverse ridge. Seeds two to 
four in each scale, and wing-margined. A magnificent and 
most graceful tree in Northern Cahfornia and Oregon, in the 
Coast Ranges, growing one hundred to one hundred and fifty 
feet high. Wood excellent, white, close-grained, compact and 
fragrant, and is known by the local name of Oregon Cedar, 
White Cedar, etc. Its success in our Northern Atlantic States 
has been rather unsatisfactory, for in some soils and situations 
it thrives and grows rapidly, while in others near by, it fails, 
burning in summer and killing back in winter. It succeeds 
best in a rather moist soil, and very poorly in a dry one. 

C. IVntkaensis, Lam. — Nootka-Sound Cypress. — Leaves only 
one eighth of an inch long, sharp-pointed, over-lapping and 
appressed, of a very dark, rich green color, very slightly glau- 
cous, without tubercles. Cones small, globular, solitary, with 
a fine whitish bloom. Scales four in number, shield-shaped, 
rough, and terminating in the center with a thick, obtuse, 
straight point. Seeds about three to each scale. Branches 
spreading or incurved at the ends. A tree sometimes a hun- 
dred feet high in Sitka, and southward to the Cascade Moun- 
tains on our northwest coast. Hardy in our Northern States, 
but aj)pears to suffer more from heat and drouths in summer 
than cold in winter. 
11 



342 



PBACTICAL FOEESTRT. 



C. thnyoides, Linn. — ^White Cedar. — Leaves very small, ovate, 
regularly imbricated in four rows, and of a light glaucous-green 
color. Branches spreading and drooping. Cones very small 
and clustered. Seeds few, very small, and nearly round. A 
large tree, forty to eighty feet high, and stem two to three feet 
in diameter, usually very straight. Wood reddish, hght, soft, 
but fine-grained, and very durable. Used for a great variety of 
purposes, and always in demand. This tree is always found in 




Fig. 51 .—TWISTED BRANCHED CYPRESS. 



cold, wet lands or swamps, and widely distributed from New 
England to Florida, and westward to Wisconsin. This species 
was made the type of the new genus as given above by Spach, 
but I certainly agree with Mr. Hoopes when he says in regard 
to this matter, that our ' 'American botanists, however, who have 
known it from childhood, and whose facilities for close inves- 
tigation are amply sufficient, refuse to accept the innovation, and 
consequently retain it in Cupressiis,^^ 



? CONIFERS, OE COKE-BEAEIKG TREES. 243 

FOREIGisT SPECIES AISTD VARIETIES. 

Of these there are quite a large number, but very few if any 
of them are hardy in our Northern States, but all can be grown 
in the Southern, as well as in the milder regions of California. 
One of the most interesting species is the Weeping or Funereal 
Cypress of Northern China, and described in Robert Fortune's 
work on the tea countries of China. He says that it grows to a 
hight of sixty feet, with weeping branches, resembling in this 
character the common Weeping Willow. Another curious and 
interesting species, the C. torulosa, Don., comes from India, 
where it grows to a hight of a hundred and fifty feet, with 
twisted branchlets, somewhat like ringlets. The cones are 
quite large, and of the size and form shown in fig. 51. This 
species is held in religious veneration by the natives, and the 
twigs and fruit are considered a valuable medicine. There are 
many other species and varieties described by botanists, but 
^ are of no especial interest to the practical forester. 

LiBOCEDRUS^ Endlicher. — California White Cedar. 

A small genus of only four species, two in South America, 
one in New Zealand, and one on our Western Coast. It is 
closely related to the common Arbor Vitse {Thuya). Cones not 
reflexed, solitary, terminal, and composed of four to six woody 
coriaceous, concave scales, terminating in a small incurved 
spine. Seed unequally winged, usually two under each scale. 
Leaves imbricated in four rows. 

Libocedrus decurrens, Torr. — White Cedar of California,— Leaves 
very bright green, awl-shaped, sharply acute. Cones three- 
quarters of an inch to an inch long, scaly-bracted at base, ob- 
long, and the lower scales very short. Branches spreading and 
incurved at the extremities. A very large tree, one hundred to 
one hundred and fifty feet high, by four to seven in diameter. 
In general appearance, this tree resembles an Arbor- Yitse, in 
fact has been placed among the Thuya's in many of our modern 
botanical works. The wood is soft and light-colored, not dura- 
ble when exposed to the weather. In the Coast Ranges of Ore- 
gon, and southward to San Diego, California. The cultivation 
of this species in the Atlantic States has not been very satis- 
factory, but occasional specimens has lived and made a moder- 
ate growth without protection, but I cannot recommend it for 
planting out any where north of Washington. 

The foreign species are even more tender than the native one, 



244 



PEACTICAL FOEESTEY. 



but are worth cultivating in the South. The L. CJiilensis, or 
Chilian Arbor- Yitae, is a handsome tree from the Ancles of 
Chili, where it grows to a hight of sixty to eighty feet. L, Doni- 
ana, the New Zealand Arbor- Vitae resembles our common native 
species of the Eastern States, but is tender even in the milder 
climate of England. 

L. tetragona, the Alerze of the Chilian's, is a native of Chih 
and Patagonia, and is the most valuable timber tree of the 
country, and although introduced into England in 1849, by 
James Yeitch and Sons, they remark in their " Manual of Coni- 
ferae," 1881, that this species " has up to the present time failed 
in England, and has now become quite scarce." 

THUYA^ Tournefort. — Arbor- Vitce, 

A genus of evergreen trees and shrubs that may be appro- 
priately termed the Shuttlecock of botanists, at least among 
those of modern times. Even the spelling of the name has 
been twisted and changed in almost every conceivable way 
possible, without wholly destroying the word. Drs. Gray and 
Chapman, also Hoopes, Paxton, Gordon, and several other 
equally as good botanical authorities, give it as Thuja, while 
Yeitch and Sons, in their Manual of Coniferse, spell it TJmia, 
Masters in his Monograph on the " Conifers of Japan," Watson 
in Botany of California, and various other authors, spell it as 
above or Thuya. Linnaeus in his Systema IsaturaB, 1767, and 
other botanists of his day, and before it, spell the word with a 
j instead of a y, and while I am satisfied that the weight of 
authority would certainly establish the j as being the correct 
orthography, still I prefer using the y, because it accords with 
the proper pronunciation. But if our botanical authorities are 
so much at variance in the name of the genus, we must expect 
a still wider disagreement in regard to the classification or 
arrangement of the species and varieties belonging to it, or in 
closely allied genera. 

Masters places all the true j^.rbor-Yitae's or TJiuyas, the Bio- 
tas and Retinisporas, under this one generic name of Thuya, 
while the more common arrangement is to divide these into 
three genera or gToups. I am incUned to think the latter is the 
most convenient one, and that there are good and well defined 
characteristics that will enable almost any careful observer to 
separate the species, even if he has no great amount of scien- 
tific intelligence to aid him in the work. The American species 
belong to the first named genera or group, and have monoecious 



COI^IFER^, OE COKE-BEAEIKG TREES. 



245 



flowers on different branches, the sterile catkins elliptical ovoid, 
and the fertile ones ovoid and solitary. Cones small, ovoid, 
with four to six rather thin scales adhering at the base, and 
covering two flattish seeds, winged all round the margins. 
Leaves small and scale-like, in four rows on the flat thin 
branchlets. Only two species in this country. 

Tkuya gigaiitea^ Nutt. — Giant Arbor- Vitse. — Leaves acuminate, 
.incurved ovate, somewhat quadrately and closely imbricated, 
and obscurely glandular ; of a bright green, sometimes of 
a glaucous-green color. Branches and branchlets erect, the lat- 
ter flattened and very graceful in form. Cones more or less 
clustered, and slightly longer than those of the next species. 
A very large and graceful tree, sometimes two hundred feet 
high, with a stem ten to twelve feet in diameter. Wood white, 
soft, and easily worked, said to be very durable. In the Coast 
Eanges and Cascade Mountains of Oregon, and in Northern 
California. Like most of the evergreens from the Northwest 
Coast, this tree is often injured by the heat of summer in our 
Atlantic States, and browned, or the shoots entirely killed in 
winter. 

T. occideutalis, L. — White Cedar, Arbor- Vitae. — Leaves quite 
small, rhombic, ovate, imbricated in four rows. Branches 
numerous, slender, upright, or widely spreading. Cones small, 
oblong-ovoid, with thin dry spreading, pointless scales. Seed 
with a broad wing all round. A common and well known tree 
in low, moist soils throughout Eastern North America. Wood 
light-colored, compact and durable. Usually a small tree, 
growing to a hight of thirty to fifty feet. A tree largely 
employed for screens and ornamental hedges, as it thrives in a 
great variety of soils. There are many varieties in cultivation, 
some exceedingly dwarf, others tall and quite slender. The so- 
called Siberian Arbor- Vitae of nurseries, is only a compact grow- 
ing variety of this species. There are several golden-leaved 
and silver-tipped varieties, one of the latter originated in my 
grounds some ten years since, and is now in the coUection 
of Parsons and Sons, Flushing, N. Y. I gave it the name 
of Columbia," as there is another silver- tipped variety 
known as Victoria." But these garden varieties are more 
interesting as ornamental trees than for practical utility. 

BiOTA^ Don. — Oriental or Eastern Arhor- Vitce, 

Flowers similar to those of the Thuya, but leaves small, 
ovate, scale-like, rough and hard to the feel, imbricated in four 



246 PRACTICAL FORESTRY. I 

opposite rows. The cones elliptic, with thick ligneous, or' 
leathery scales placed in opposite pairs, and furnished with a 
recurved short or long horny point. Seeds two at the base of 
each scale, large, ovoid, nut-like and without wings. There is 
a large number of varieties, by some authors considered spe- 
cies, the most familiar are Chinese Arbor- Vitse (Biota orientalis), 
a tall growing tree, found throughout China and Japan, and of 
Avhich there are a large number of cultivated varieties. The 
Tartarian Arbor- Yitse {B. Tartarica), is probably only a variety 
of the Chinese, although quite distinct in form of growth and 
in size and shape of the cones. There are also golden-leaved, 
weeping, dwarf, and other forms described in works devoted 
exclusively to the coniferse, like those of Hoopes, Yeitch, Mas- 
ters, Gordon, etc., etc. 

RETii^'isPORA, Siebold. — Japan Arior-Vitce. 

A genus or group more closely allied to the Chinese than 
American Arbor- Vitae, having small, round woody cones, with 
numerous ovate scales. The seeds are resinous, and with 
membraneous wings that are usually deciduous, when fully ma- 
ture. The name of the genus derives its origin from the resin- 
ous coating of the seed. There is a very large number of varie- 
ties in cultivation, probably all descendents from one original 
species, but in the present state of our knowledge it would be 
difficult to fix upon the parent stock. M. T. Masters in Mono- 
graph already referred to, names E, pisifera, Siebold, and i?. 
obtusa, Sieb., as the two species from which the almost innu- 
merable varieties have descended. The last species grows to a 
large size on the Island of Nippon in Japan, forming trees sixty 
to eighty feet high. All the species and varieties are really 
beautiful trees and well worth cultivating for ornamental pur- 
poses, if for no other. They present a great variety of foliage, 
both in form and color. In some the leaves and branchlets are 
exceedingly minute and feather-like, either dark green or of a 
silver or golden color, while others have flattish branchlets, 
somewhat after the forms and character of our common Arbor- 
Vitae. Seedlings often vary widely from the parent stock, and 
what are termed "sports," frequently appear among old and 
well established plants. One of the most unique varieties in 
cultivation originated in my grounds about eight years ago, and 
was described by Prof. Geo. Thurber in the American Agricul- 
titristy 1881, under the name of Fuller's Japan Arbor-Vitse. It 
originated from a sport of the variety known as R, var. aurea 



COKIFER^, OR CONE-BEARIKG TREES. 247 



plumosa, a single branch shooting out from the side of a large 
plant, and instead of retaining the original form, it pushed out 
horizontally, and unlike the usual light, feathery foliage, char- 
acteristic of the variety, the leaves in this were Hat and closely 
pressed to the stems, presenting altogether, in the form at least, 
the appearance of a Lawson Cypress. This branch was layered 
and removed, and is now a tree more than twice the hight and 
size of the parent plant at its side. The leaves have the golden 
color or the original, but the plant has the graceful habit of the 
Lawson Cypress. Furthermore I have found it quite difficult 
to propagate from cuttings, while, as is well known, the jparent 
is almost as readily propagated in this way as a willow. This 
freak among the Retinisporas in my own grounds has rather 
lessened than increased my confidence in some of the attempts 
that have been made to elaborate or correctly classify the dif- 
ferent species and varieties of this genus. 

SEQUOIA, Endl. — Redwood — Mammoth Tree. 

A genus of only two species, both of which belong to CaK- 
fornia. Flowers monoecious, terminal, solitary. Staminate 
flowers small, partly enclosed with scale-like lea^^es. Fertile 
ameuts, oblong-ovato, erect, the cone maturing the second year, 
woody, oval, the scales divergent at right angles from the axis, 
thick and wedge-shaped. Seeds flat, oblong-ovate, with a 
spongy margin. 

Scqnoia scmpmu'cnSj Endl. — Eed Wood. — Leaves a half inch 
to an inch long, bright green, slightly silvery beneath, spread- 
ing in two rows. Cones oblong, only about an inch long, soli- 
tary and terminal, with numerous thick, rough scales. Seeds 
three to five under each scale. One of the most valuable trees 
in California, occupying the Coast Ranges from Oregon to San 
Luis Obispo, appearing to thrive best where exposed to the fogs 
from the ocean. A tree growing from two to three hundred 
feet high, with a very straight cylindrical stem. Wood a rich 
brownish-red color, light, but strong and durable, and very 
straight grained, easily worked, and takes a high polish. Only 
succeeds in our Southern States, scarcely hardy even in Vir- 
ginia. 

S. gigantea, Decaisne.— Big Tree, Great Tree of California. — 
Leaves pale green, and much smaller than in the last, not in 
rows or ranks, slightly spreading or closely appressed, ovate or 
acuminate, or lanceolate, rigid and pungent. Cones ovate- 



248 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



oblong, two to three inches long, of usually twenty-five to 
thirty scales. Seeds three to seven to each scale, brownish, 
with spongy wing-like margin. Cone and a small branch shown 
in fig. 52, each about one half natural size, with seed between 
full size of nature. This is called the ' ' pride of the California 
woods," and it occurs only in groves and isolated groups that 
extend along a line of some two hundred and forty miles. The 

largest and tallest one yet 
discovered, is in what is 
called the Calveras Grove, 
and is three hundred and 
twenty -five feet high. 
p>. The so-called Grizzly Gi- 
ant of the Mariposa 
Grove is a little over nine- 
ty-three feet in circum- 
ference at the ground. 
Unfortunately this valu- 
able and noble tree is not 
a success in our Eastern 
States, and although an 
occasional specimen will 
thrive, it does not appear 
to be adapted to our cli- 
mate. I raised a large 
number of seedlings in 
1858, which were distrib- 
uted among my acquaint- 
ances, but I very much 
doubt if there is one now 
alive. I have also pro- 
cured specimens many 
times since, but sooner or later they would die out. A cool, 
moist soil, and climate, where the winters are not very severe, 
appears to suit it best. It seems to thrive well in England. 

TAXODiUM, Ei chard. — Bald Cypress. 
A genus, as now restricted, containing but one species, and 
this found in our Southern States, and westward into Mexico. 
The flowers are monoecious on the same branch. Sterile cat- 
kins in a long, spiked panicle, drooping with few stamens, fer- 
tile ones with low ovules at the base of each scale. Leaves 
deciduous, and set in two ranks on the branchlets. 




52. — CONE, BRANCHLET, Al^D SEED 
OF SEQUOIA. GIGANTEA. 



CONIFEE^, OR CONE-BEARI^^^G TREES. 249 



Taxodinm disticlmm, Richard. — Deciduous Cypress, Bald Cy- 
press, etc., etc. — Leaves from one half to three-quarters of an 
inch long, linear, acute, flat, alternate or opposite, occasionally 
in whorls. Cones an inch in diameter, round, closed, hard, and 
rough, with thick woody scales. Seeds small, hard, with nar- 
row wings. While this is a strictly Southern tree, it thrives in 
all of the Middle, and many of the Northern States. In the 
alluvial bottom lands of the South, it grows to a hight of one 
hundred and fifty feet, with a stem ten tj twelve feet in diame- 
ter. Wood reddish, strong, light, easily split and worked, 
extensively used for shingles, railway ties and other purposes. 
It is a rapid growing tree even in our Northern States, and a 
number of years ago I raised several thousand for stakes, com- 
mencing to thin out the young trees when five or six feet high, 
and I found that it was cheaper to raise stakes on my own 
grounds than to purchase and haul them ten or twenty miles. 
This tree deserves more attention from those who are cultivat- 
ing forest trees than it has ever received. It is a very hardy 
tree in my grounds, and grows quite rapidly, even in a dry, 
sandy soil. 

There are several ornamental varieties in cultivation, one of a 
dwarf habit, and another having a very decided pyramidal- 
shaped top. A Mexican variety differs from the species in hav- 
ing very long persistent leaves, and somewhat larger cones, 
with the scales armed with a short, stout point. 

Before leaving this genus of deciduous conifers, I must refer 
to another which is so closely allied that several of our botani- 
cal authorities have placed the species among the true Taxo- 
diums, and classed them under this generic name. I refer to 
the Glyptostrobus, a genus containing at most two species, both 
inhabiting the colder parts of China and Japan. The (7. Jieiero- 
phylhis, Endl., is a tree with very small leaves, quite variable 
in form, scattered all around the branchlets, and of a glaucous- 
green color. It is only a small tree with ascending branches 
recurved at the extremities. The other species is known as the 

Weeping Deciduous Cypress" [G. pendulus, Endl.) It has 
very slender branchlets, drooping, curved or twisted, and the 
leaves are long, slender and compressed when young, but 
spreading at maturity. A hardy and beautiful rapid growing 
tree, although it probably never reaches a very large size. 



250 PRACTICAL FORESTKY. 

ABiES^ Tour. — Fir Tree. 

Evergreen trees and shrubs, with flat, somewhat two-ranked 
leaves. Flowers monoecious, or male and female on the same 
plant, but separate ; the male catkins axillary or terminal, the 
female on very short branchlets. Cones cylindrical, erect, and 
on the upper side of the branches. The scales of the cones fall 
from the axis at maturity, not adhering and falling together as 
in the Pines and Spruces. Seeds with very thin and somewhat 
persistent wings. 

Abies balsamea^ Marshall. — Balsam Fu*, Balm of Gilead Fir. — 
Leaves an inch long, or a little less, narrow and slender, spread- 
ing, and slightly recurved, dark green above and silvery 
beneath. Cones three to four inches long, cylindrical. Scales 
broad, thin, smooth and rounded. Seeds angular, small. A 
handsome tree when young, but soon loses its lower brancheSj 
becoming rather naked and top-heavy. A modera>te sized tree, 
usually growing thirty to forty feet high, but sometimes sixty 
or seventy. Wood white, soft, and of little value. The liquid 
resin, known as " Canada Balsam," is obtained from this spe- 
cies. A common tree in cold, damp soils, from Canada south- 
ward to Virginia, along the mountains. 

A. bracteata, Nutt. — Leafy-bracted Silver Fir. — Leaves two to 
three inches long, linear, and crowded in two rows, flat, and 
somewhat rigid, light green above, silvery beneath. Branches 
in whorls, the lower ones drooping. Cones three or four inches 
long, and about two in diameter, solitary, with roundish kid- 
ney-shaped, rigid, and three-lobed bracts ; the middle one 
nearly two inches long, slender and recurved, especially those 
near the base of the cone ; the upper ones nearly straight. A 
slender, but very tall tree, often reaching a hight of one hun- 
dred feet, and sometimes more. Wood like that of all the firs, 
and of little value. Found in Oregon, and southward in Cali- 
fornia, in the Santa Lucia Mountains, at an elevation of from 
three to six thousand feet. 

A. concolor, Lindl. — White Fir, Black Balsam. — Leaves two to 
three inches long, mostly obtuse, but on young trees often 
long-pointed, two-ranked, pale green, or silvery. Cones ob- 
long, cylindrical, three to five inches long, and about an inch 
and a half in diameter, pale green or purplish. Scales twice as 
broad as high, bracts short, enclosed within the scales ; wing of 
seed oblique and very persistent. Seeds about three-eighths of 



COKIFER^, OR COKE-BEARIKG TREES. 



251 



an inch long, somewhat triangular and compressed on the 
edges. A large tree, seventy-five to a hundred and fifty feet 
high, with stem three to four feet in diameter, covered with a 
rough, grayish t>ark. Wood very white, soft, and of inferior 
quality. Miners in New Mexico assured me that this tree was 
known as the Black Balsam" in that region, but they could 
give no good reason for such a name, as the wood is very white 
and the foliage is often of a light silvery color. A common tree 
from Northern New Mexico, northward and westward, at ele- 
vations of from three to ten thousand feet, and quite abundant 
at the highest elevation, in the first named locality. A hand- 
some variety, with leaves incurved upward along the branches, 
and known as A, C, var. Parsoniana, is far more abundant 
than the species in the canyons of the northwestern part of Col- 
fax County, New Mexico, where I had an opportunity of exam- 
ining thousands of specimens a few years ago. 

A. Fraseri^ Pursh. — Fraser's Balsam Fir. — Leaves somewhat 
two-ranked, linear, fiattened, obtuse or emarginate, whitened 
beneath, the lower ones usually recurved, and the upper ones 
erect. Cones oblong, one to two inches long ; bracts oblong, 
wedged-shaped, short-pointed and reflexed at the summit. A 
rather rare little tree, growing thirty to forty feet high in the 
mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, although Pursh, 
who first described it, said he found it growing on Broad Moun- 
tain in Pennsylvania. A hardy tree, and handsome while 
young. 

A. grandis, Lindl. — Great Silver Fir. — Leaves short, slender, 
flat, one to one and a half inch long, deep-green above and 
silvery beneath. Cones three inches long, and about two broad, 
cylindrical, obtuse, erect, solitary, of a chestnut-brown color. 
Scales very broad, and incurved on the margin. Seeds small, 
oblong, with a brittle, thin wing. The largest species of this 
genus growing from two to three hundred feet high, with stem 
four or five feet in diameter. California to British Columbia, 
near the Coast. Wood soft, white, and coarse-grained, but use- 
ful for floors, joist, and beams in buildings, but is not durable 
when exposed to the weather. A handsome ornamental tree, 
but imfortunately many of those that have been distributed 
from our nurseries were grafted on some slower-growing stock, 
and these failing has led many persons to think that this spe- 
cies would not succeed in our Eastern States. 

A. magnifica, Murray. — Red Fir.— Leaves somewhat quadrangu- 



252 



PEACTICAL FOKESTRY. 



lar, curved upward, scarcely an inch long, somewhat two- 
ranked. Cones six to eight inches long, two to three inches in 
diameter, purplish-brown ; bracts lanceolate-acuminate, and 
shorter than the very wide scales, which are from one to nearly 
two inches long, by scarcely an inch high. Seed slender, with 
broad wings. Readily distinguished from the next by the en- 
closed bracts. A large tree, two hundred feet and over in hight, 
with stem six to ten feet in diameter, at elevations of six to ten 
thousand feet in the higher Sierras. This maybe only a local 
variety of the next species, as it is not abundant, and no forests 
of it have as yet been found. 

A, noMlis, Lindl. — Noble Silver Fir. — Leaves an inch to an inch 
and a half long, rigid, curved upward, covering the underside 
of the smaller branches, whitish, and keeled on the upper and 
under side, rather acute, slightly grooved, and somewhat two- 
ranked. Cones cylindrical-oblong, six to nine inches long, and 
two to three in diameter, and almost covered with the reflexed 
bracts. This tree is also known in Northern California under 
the name of " Red Fir," and grows to about the same size as 
the last, but has a much wider range, forming extensive forests 
at the base of Mount Shasta, California, and northward in the 
Cascade Mountains tu the Columbia River. 

A. snbalpina. — Engelm. — This is rather a doubtful species, but 
has been described under various names by different botanists, 
such as A, lasiocarpa, Hook., and A, amahilis, Pari., etc., etc., 
but it is probably only one of the many forms or varieties of A. 
concolor, which is scattered through the sub-alpine regions of 
the Rocky Mountains of Northern New Mexico, and northward 
to Oregon. 

FOREIGIS' SPECIES. 

Although there are few of these that will ever be planted in 
this country as forest trees, still there are quite a number that 
are very desirable for ornamental i3urposes. The following are 
among the best known species : 

A. Cephalonicaj Loudon. — Cephalonian Silver Fir. — Leaves 
about three-fourths of an inch long, dagger-shaped, sharp and 
rigid. A beautiful species, from the highest mountains of 
Cephalonia, and other parts of Greece. A free-grower, and 
quite hardy in our Northern States. 

A. Cilieia, Carriere. — Cilician Silver Fir. — Leaves from one to 
two inches long, and a tenth of an inch broad, flat, dark-green 



CONIFERS, OR CONE-BEARIKG TREES. 253 



above, slightly silvery beneath. A very handsome, compact 
growing tree, from Asia Minor. Moderately hardy, but occa- 
sionally the foliage has been browned in winter on my oldest 
specimen, now fifteen years planted. 

A. Nordmaniiiana, Link. — Nordmann's Fir. — Leav^es an inch or 
a little more in length, flat, incurved, dark, glossy-green above, 
pale beneath. A handsome large tree, discovered by Prof. 
Nordmann in the Adshar Mountains, at an elevation of about 
six thousand feet. It is common in the Crimean Mountains, 
and those east of the Black Sea. A hardy and highly prized 
ornamental tree. 

A. pectinata, DeCandolle. — European Silver Fir. — Leaves about 
an inch long, flat, with occasionally an incurved point. A 
rather unreliable tree for cultivation in this country, and is 
usually short lived, probably on account of the heat and dry- 
ness of our climate. 

A. Pichta, Fischer. — Siberian Silver Fir. — Leaves about an inch 
long, linear and flat, obtuse and incurved at the apex, mostly 
scattered or crowded, not evenly distributed, very dark green 
above, paler below. A very compact growing small tree, from 
the mountains of Siberia. A hardy tree that thrives in almost 
any kind of soil or situation. There is a variety known as 
longifolia, with larger leaves and more silvery foliage. 

A. Pindrow, Spach. — Upright Indian Fir. — Leaves two inches or 
more in length, two-ranked, occasionally scattered, flat, acute, 
deep green, slightly silvery on the underside. A very band- 
some Asiatic species, but does poorly in our hot, dry climate. 

A. Pinsapo, Boissier. — Pinsapo Fir. — Leaves less than an inch 
long, very stiff and sharp-pointed, scattered regularly round 
the branches. Branches in whorls, and branchlets very numer- 
ous. A remarkably handsome tree from the mountains of 
Spain, and only succeeds in somewhat sheltered situations in 
our Atlantic States. 

A. Webbiaiia, Lindley. — Webb's Purplo-coned Silver Fir. — 
Leaves an inch and a half to two inches long, mostly two- 
ranked, linear, flat, and bright glossy-green above, slightly 
silvery beneath. A large tree from the Himalayas and Nepal. 
Wood exceedingly fragrant. The leaves often turn brown in 
summer, owing to the great heat to which they are subjected 
in our climate. 



254 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



PSEUDOTSUGA. — Carriere. 

A genus of a single species, intermediate between the Firs 
and Hemlocks. The flowers appear from the axils of last year's 
leaves. Male flowers in an oblong or subcylindrical stamineal 
column, surrounded and partly enclosed in bud scales. Female 
flowers with scales much shorter than the long-pointed bracts. 
Cones mature the flrst season, with persistent protruding bracts. 

Psendotsuga Donglassi, Carr. — Douglass Spruce. — Leaves linear, 
distinctly petioled, mostly blunt or rounded, nearly an inch 
long on old trees, but a little longer on young, thrifty speci- 
mens. Cones two to three inches long, subcylindrical bracts 
more or less protruding and reflexed. Seeds triangular, convex 
on the upper side and reddish ; on the lower, flat and white. A 
gigantic tree, two to three hundred feet high, and eight to fif- 
teen feet in diameter, with thick, brown, deeply fissured bark. 
Wood reddish or yellow, coarse-grained, heavy and strong, and 
considered very valuable. Oregon, and throughout the Coast 
Ranges, into Mexico. One of the largest and most important 
timber trees in the West. Var. macrocarpa, Engelm.^ has 
smaller and more acute leaves, and the tree does not grow to as 
large size as the species. It occurs in the foot hills of the San 
Bernardino Mountains, California. 

TSUGA, Carriere. — Hemlock Spruce, 

A genus of five species, one in the Atlantic States, two in 
Western North America, and two in Asia. Male flower a 
sub-globose cluster of stamens, appearing from the axils of last 
year's leaves. Female catkins terminal on last year's twigs, 
with bracts somewhat shorter than the scales. Large trees, 
with very slender drooping terminal branches. 

Tsnga Canadensis, Michx. — Hemlock. — Leaves linear, a half inch 
long, flat, obtuse, dark green above and whitish beneath. 
Cones three-quarters of an inch long, oval, composed of a few 
roundish, oblong, thin scales. Seeds quite small, with thin 
wings. A large and most graceful tree, with a light spreading 
spray of delicate foliage. It grows to the hight of nearly a 
hundred feet, with stem three to six feet in diameter. Wood 
light-colored, very coarse-grained, but extensively employed for 
roof boards and sheathing, as it holds a nail well, also for joists 
and smaller timber used in buildings. It is inferior in quality 
to that of the Pines and Spruces, still it is so abundant and 
cheap that it is largely used for the purposes named. The bark 



COJNIFER^, OR CONE-BEARING TREES. 



255 



is rich in tannin, and it is in great demand for tanning leather. 
A strictly Northern tree, succeeding only in cool climates. 
Very abundant in the Northern States and Canadas, and along 
the mountains southward to Georgia. There are quite a num- 
ber of varieties of the Canada Hemlock in cultivation, some 
with broader leaves than the species, and others with smaller 
and deeper green, r.nd several of a dwarf habit, and very com- 
pact growth, but the most unique of all is Sargent's WeeiDmg 
Hemlock, a very graceful tree, with pendulous branches. 

T. Merteusiana, Bongard. — California Hemlock. — Leaves about 
three-fourths of an inch long, flat, obtuse, crowded, bright 
green above, slightly whitish below. Branches and twigs very 
slender, drooping, Cones about an inch long, ovate, with a few 
persistent kidney-shaped entire scales. A large tree, one to two 
hundred feet high, with a more rounded conical head than our 
Eastern Hemlock, but wood quite similar, although claimed 
by some to be of better quality. Said to be hardy in England, 
but the foliage often burns badly in our Eastern States during 
the hot weather in summer. Native of California, and north- 
ward to Alaska, in the Coast regions. 

T. Pattoniaiia, Engelm. — Pat ton's Hemlock. — Leaves mostly 
convex or keeled above, somewhat sharp-pointed, about an inch 
long. Cones cylindrical-oblong, two to three inches long, 
seeds larger than in the last species, and the wings shorter. A 
very tall, strictly pyramidal tree, one hundred to one hundred 
and fifty feet high, and growing at elevations of eight to ten 
thousand feet in the Sierra Nevada and northward through the 
Cascade Mountains in Oregon. 

The Asiatic species of the Hemlock have frequently been in- 
troduced, and so long as kept in a conservatory or carefully 
protected in winter, they thrive, but do not succeed when 
planted out and exposed to our severe climate. 

PICE A. — Spruce, 

A genus of about a dozen species peculiar to the mountainous 
regions of America, Europe and Asia. Male flowers axiUary 
or sometimes terminal on last year's branchlets. Female cat- 
kins at the end of short or long twigs, with. scales much larger 
than the bracts. Cones maturing the first year, and pendulous. 
Scales and enclosed bracts persistent on the axis, the cones fall- 
ing off entire after the seed have dropped out. Leaves usually 
keeled above and beneath, disposed somewhat spirally all 



256 



PEACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



around the branches, seldom in rows or ranks as in the Firs. 
We have five native species. 

Picea allia, Michx. — Wliite Spruce. — Leaves needle-shaped, 
four-angled, one half to an inch long, and distributed all 
around the branch, those on the underside curving upward ; of 
a light silvery-green color. Cones one to two inches long, 
oblong-cylindrical, with entire scales. Seeds small, with thin 
wings, about three-eighths of an inch long. A very beautiful 
tree, especially while young. A rather small tree, but some- 
times fifty feet high. Native of the northern portion of the 
United States, extending far northward into British America. 
Wood light-colored, rather tough and flexible, sometimes used 
for masts and spars for boats and small vessels on our lakes. 
There are a few handsome cultivated varieties, the best known 
are the Blue Spruce (var. ccerulea), with dark bluish-green 
leaves, and the "Glory Spruce" (var. aurea), with golden- 
tinted leaves. 

P. Engelmaniii, Parry. — Engelmann's Spruce. — Leaves nearly 
an inch long, strongly keeled below, abruptly, but not sharp- 
pointed. Cones one and a half to two inches long, and 
about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, ovate-cylindrical, 
and very much scattered on the tree. Scales rhombic, with 
upper ends appearing as though broken off. 

In general outhne this species resembles the next, but grows 
to a larger size, or from sixty to one hundred feet high, with 
stem two to three feet in diameter. Wood white, soft, or in 
very old trees, reddish and rather coarse-grained, resembling 
that of the Eed Spruce of the Eastern States. In Northern 
New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, and northward to British 
Columbia, in the moimtains at high elevations, often reaching 
up to the very border of what is termed timber line," or be- 
tween eleven and twelve thousand feet. 

P. nigra, Poiret. — Black or Double Spruce. — Leaves very short 
or about a half inch long, stiff and somewhat quadrangular, 
very dark green. Cones from an inch to an inch and a half 
long, ovate, or ovate-oblong, dull reddish brown when mature. 
Scales very thin, roundish, with an uneven margin. Seeds 
small, with rigid wings. A large tree, seventy-five feet high, 
sometimes higher in deep woods. Wood light-colored, but 
sometimes reddish, light, strong, well known in all of our 
Northern States under the name of Eed or Black Spruce tim- 
ber, and lumber of various forms. The Red or Black Spruce 



COKIFEK^, OR COKE-BEARIKG TEEES. 



257 



(as it is equally well known under both names), is not a hand- 
some evergreen under cultivation, as it soon loses its lower 
branches and becomes rather a ragged and unsightly tree. 

P. pnngens, Engelm. — Silver Spruce. — Leaves about an inch 
long, rather broad, rigid, stout, sharply acute, usually incurved, 
pale green above, and silvery-glaucous below. Cones three to 
four inches long, cylindrical and pendulous, as in all of the true 
si^ecies, very abundant, with elongated rhombic, truncate 
scales. Seeds small, with somewhat triangular obovate wings. 
This species was formally considered as only a variety of P. 
Menziesii, Douglass, but has recently been raised to the posi- 
tion of a species, and the Menzies' Spruce placed as a synonym 
of the next. A large and beautiful tree in Colorado, Wyoming 
and Idaho, but no where in great abundance. Succeeds admira- 
bly in the more Northern of our Atlantic States. 

P. sitcliensis, Bongard. — Sitcha Spruce. — Leaves a half inch or 
more in length, flat, with a sharp point, whitish on the upper 
surface when young. Cones cylindrical, oval, one and a half 
to two and a half inches long, and about one inch in diameter, 
X)ale yellowish. Bracts rigid, lanceolate, and about one half the 
length of the oblong-rounded scales. A large tree, one hundred 
and fifty to two hundred feet high, with stem five to nine feet 
in diameter. Wood said to be sui^erior to any other species of 
the Spruce. Peculiar to the Northern Pacific Coast, mainly in 
wet, sandy soils near streams in Mendocino County, California, 
northward to Alaska. 

EOREIG^q" SPECIES AND VARIETIES. 

Among these the best known is the Norway Spruce (P. ex- 
celsa), which has long been a favorite ornamental tree in this 
country, and probably more extensively planted than any other 
conifer. It is really a handsome tree, and being a native of 
Northern Europe and Asia, it is quite hardy in all of our North- 
ern States, except, perhaps, on the western praries, where the 
winds are more injurious than low temperatures. There are 
an immense number of varieties in cultivation, in fact, more 
than I can spare room to name, and for this reason must refer 
the reader to the catalogues of nurserymen or special works on 
the coniferae, for names and descriptions. 

There are, however, several other foreign species and varie- 
ties not so well known as the Norway Spruce, but equally 
worthy of cultivation, and among them I will name the 



258 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



P. Orientalis. — Oriental Spruce. — A beautiful tree, with very 
short, dark green leaves, about half an inch long, which entire- 
ly surround the branches. A regular conical growing tree, but 
not a rapid grower. 

P. polita. — Tiger's Tail Spruce. — A native of the mountains 
of Japan, is very distinct, with strong, rigid, sharp-pointed 
leaves, somewhat sickle-shape, on 
sturdy, strong branchlets, with 
very prominent buds, as shown in 
figure 53. Cones four or five inches 
long, of the shape shown in figure 
54. It is a rather slow-growing 




Fig. 53,— BRANOHLET OF TIGER' S TAIL 
SPRUCE. 



Fig. 54.— CONE OF tiger's 

TAIL SPRUCE. 



species, but of a very sturdy habit. My oldest specimen, ten 
years planted, is only about eight feet high. This spruce 
would make an excellent hedge plant, owing to its sharp- 
pointed rigid leaves. 

P« firma is another Japan species from the mountains of Ja- 
pan, that promises to be a valuable addition to our list of East- 



COKIFEK^, OR CO^q-E-BEARIKG TREES. 259 



ern conifers, but none of these and several other species and 
varieties that have been introduced from abroad, are abundant 
enough as yet to be admitted into a list of available forest trees. 

LARix^ Toiirnefort. — Larch, 

A genus of deciduous cone-bearing trees, closely allied to the 
Firs (Abies), but distinguished by smaller cones, with XDersistent 
scales and bracts ; usually erect, on slender, rather drooi)ing 
branches. Sterile flowers, nearly as in the Pine, but iDollen 
grains solitary and round. Fertile catkins latei'al and scatter- 
ing, bright crimson when in bloom. Leaves slender, soft, de- 
ciduous, mostly in clusters or bundles at the ends of the short, 
undeveloped branches. Only about a half dozen species, and 
these confined to the Northern Hemisphere, but extending 
entirely aroimd the world, through Asia, Europe, and Noith 
America. 

Larix Americanai IVIichx. — ^American Larch, Tamarack, Hack- 
matack. — Leaves from one half to three-fourths of an inch long, 
slender and thread-Uke, light bluish green. Cones about an 
inch long, ovoid, scales few, slightly reflexed and rounded. 
Seed small, with short, thin wings. Branches slender and 
drooping, and the tree while young has a very graceful habit, but 
as they grow older the lower branches die, and break off, and 
the persistent cones adhere to those above, until the trees seem 
to be loaded down with them, and they are quite conspicuous 
and not very ornamental, during the winter months. A hand- 
some ornamental tree while young, but soon becomes too tall, 
slender and naked, as the lower branches soon cease to enlarge 
or lengthen. A large tree in the cold northern woods and 
swamps, sometimes reaching a hight of a hundred feet, with a 
stem two feet in diameter. Always a slender tree, with light 
colored, strong wood, which is moderately durable, and used in 
ship building, posts and fencing. The quality of the wood de- 
pends somewhat upon the soil or locality where grown, that 
from British America, Labrador, and Newfoundland, is said to 
be much superior to that grown within the United States. The 
Larch is of little value on dry soils, and we have many far 
more valuable trees for cultivating in moist ones. 

L. Lyallii, Parlat. — Lyall's Larch. — A smaller species than the 
last, found a number of years ago in the Cascade Mountains of 
Washington Territory, by Dr. Lyall, and described in the ' ' Gar- 
dener's Chronicle " by Professor Parlatore. A small tree, growing 



260 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



only thirty to forty feet high, and remarkable on account of 
the cobweb-like wool that clothes the leaf-buds and young 
shoots. Its cones are larger and more oblong than those of our 
other native Larches. It is found at elevations of six to seven 
thousand feet. 

L. ofddentalis, Nutt. — Western Larch. — Leaves a little less 
than an inch long, thick, and quite rigid, terminated with a 
sharp point, doubled channeled above and below, somewhat 
four-angled, but flat. Cones ovoid, an mch and a quarter long, 
reflexed, scales short, ovoid, edges thin. Bracts a half inch 
long, fringed, and terminating in a long awn. A large tree, 
sixty to eighty feet high in Oregon and Washington Territory, 
where it grows up to an elevation of some five thousand feet. 
This species will probably thrive in our Atlantic States. 

rOREIGX SPECIES AXD VARIETIES. 

The common European Larch {L. Euvopea), has long been a 
favorite forest tree in Europe, not only on account of its valua- 
ble timber, but because of its rapid growth under cultivation. 
It is found abundantly through Central Em'ope at high eleva- 
tions, where it grows to a large size, sometimes a hundred feet 
high. During the past two centuries extensive Larch planta- 
tions have been established in Great Britain, especially in Scot- 
land, where this tree appears to thrive as well as in its native 
mountains. Its timber is extensively used for naval purposes 
on account of its lightness, toughness, and durabihty. It is 
also employed for hop-poles, mill-work, beams, joists in build- 
ings, docks, and various other purposes. The cultivation of 
the European Larch in this country has often been attempted 
on quite a large scale, and at one time it was thought that it 
would prove a valuable tree for planting on the high and dry 
prairies of the west, but the climate of those regions does not 
appear to be as congenial as that of Great Britain, and, upon the 
vrhole, the Larch plantations in the west have not been as gTeat 
a success and was expected, although the tree thrives in almost 
any good and moderately moist soil in our Northern States, but 
is scarcely adapted to planting on the higher and drier plains 
and prairies. There are several handsome ornamental varieties 
in cultivation, and they may be found described in nursery- 
men's catalogues under such names as the Weeping Larch, 
Smooth-leaved, Compact or Pyramidal, etc. 

L. Daliurka, Turz. — Dahurian Larch. — A small tree from 



CONIjFERiE, OK COi^E-BEARIKG TKEES. 261 



Northern Siberia, growing on the bleak mountains of Dahuria, 
also found in the Ural Mountains and Kamtchatka, to the Pacific 
Ocean. It is closely allied to the European Larch, and may 
only be a northern form of the same species. 

L. Griffithianaj Hook. — Sikkim Larch. — This was discovered by 
Dr. Hooker, and as growing in Bhotan, Sikkim, and Nepal, at 
elevations of six to twelve thousand feet, it is a large, sprawl- 
ing, irregular growing tree of some fifty or sixty feet high, 
with rather long leaves, and cones two to two and a half inches 
long. 

L. Leptolepis, Gordon. — Japan Larch. — This is a very hand- 
some species from the mountains of Northern Japan, where it 




Fig. 55. — GOLDEN LARCU (Z. KtempfeH). 

grows to a higlit of forty feet. The leaves are an inch to an 
inch and a half long, slender, and of a pale green color. Cones 
about an inch and a quarter long, with about sixty scales. 
Young branches smooth, with ash-colored bark, rather rigid, 
and spreading branchlets. A very handsome, erect growing 
tree, and very hardy, at least I have never seen a twig injured 
by cold in my grounds. 

L. Ksempferi, Gordon. — Golden Larch. — A very distinct 
species from China, and by some botanical authorities placed 



262 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



in a genus by itself, under the name of Pseudolarix, or False 
Larch. It inhabits Northeastern China, at elevations of about 
three thousand feet above the sea, where it grows to a hight of 
a hundred and twenty feet, with a stem three feet in diameter. 
The leaves grow in bundles, Hke the common Larch, but one to 
two inches long, and the cones nearly three inches long, with 
thick, woody, somewhat divergent scales. The leaves in spring 
are of a pale pea-green color, becoming darker in summer, and 
changing to a bright golden color in autumn. A catkin bear- 
ing twig is shown in fig. 55, the leaves somewhat reduced in 
size. This is as yet a rather scarce tree, in both Eiu'opea>n and 
Ameiican gardens, although it was introduced into England in 
1852, and soon after into the United States, but owing to the 
difficulty of procuring seed, and propagating by other means, 
the number produced has been quite limited. 

piKUS^ Toiirnefort. — Pme, 

An extensive genus of evergreen trees, containing a larger 
number of species than any other of the coniferous group. 
There are in all between sixty and seventy species described in 
botanical works, eleven of which belong to our Atlantic States, 
fifteen to the Rocky Mountain regions, and westward to the 
Pacific, and about the same number to Mexico and the West 
Indies — the remainder to the Old World, extending from Great 
Britain to China and Japan. Some of the species thrive in the 
poorest and lightest soils, which are almost worthless for agri- 
cultural purposes, while others grow on rocky cliffs and in 
bleak and exposed situations or among stone that are merely 
covered with a thin fihn of vegetable matter. The genus as a 
whole may be said to contribute more to the comfort, welfare 
and prosperity of civilized man than any other order or class of 
forest trees, while occupying the least valuable portions of the 
earth's surface. 

Flowers monoecious, male catkins exceedingly numerous in 
spikes or clusters, female catkins solitary, or several together, 
and scales much longer than the bracts. Fruit a cone, matur- 
ing the second year, spreading or reflexed, rarely erect, and com- 
posed of woody imbricated scales. Seeds nut-like, situated in 
an excavation or depression at the base of the scales, mostly 
winged, but the wings only persistent in a few species. The 
cones of many of the species remain attached to the branches 
until they decay and fall to pieces when several years old. 
Leaves needle-shaped, cylindrical or somewhat triangular, in 



COKIFEE^, OR CONE-BEARIKG TREES. 



263 



clusters of two, three, or five, enclosed in a thin sheath at the 
base. The number of leaves in a sheath not only aid in separat- 
ing and determining the different species, but the practical for- 
ester knows that there is a great difference in the character of 
the wood of the species belonging to the different groups or di- 
visions. Those with five leaves in a sheath, like our common 
White Pine, have much finer grained and softer wood than 
those with two leaves, and so far as my personal observations 
have extended, this holds good with the Pines of all countries. 

Plans Arizouica, Engelm. — Yellow Pine. — A new species of 
which little is known, probably Mexican, but collected in 
Southern Arizona in 1874, by Dr. Rothrock, and described in 
Wheeler's Reports. Said to be a small tree, growing forty feet 
high, and yielding the best lumber of that region of country, 
which is certainly not very high praise, as there are very few 
valuable lumber trees in Southern Arizona. 

P. Anstralis, Michx. — Long-Leaved Pine, Southern Yellow 
Pine, Georgia Pine. — Leaves three in a sheath, ten to fifteen 
inches long, bright green, and somewhat crowded at the ends 
of the branches. Cones six to ten inches long, cylindrical, with 
thick scales and very small recurved spines. A large and com- 
mon tree throughout the Southern States, growing sixty to 
eighty feet high, with stem three to four feet in diameter. 
Wood hard, fine grained and durable, extensively employed in 
ship building, floors, fencing, and inside finishing of buildings. 
Sometimes containing so much resin as to be of little value, 
except for burning and making lamp-black. From this species 
the greater part of the turpentine, tar, pitch, and resin pro- 
duced in this country is obtained. This tree thrives in the poor, 
light soils of the South, but is not hardy in the North, although 
I have known specimens to live for several years in the suburbs 
of New York. 

P. Balfonriaiiaj Jeffrey.— Fox-Tail Pine, Cat-Tail Pine, Hickory 
Pine. — Leaves in fives, an inch to an inch and a quarter long, 
rigid, and usually curved or twisted, crowded and appressed to 
the stem, and remaining on the branches ten or more years. 
Cones three to four inches long, dark purple or brown when 
ripe, and usually attached to long,' slender branchlets. Scales 
thick, with short, very brittle prickles. Seeds small, whitish, 
with wings three-fourths of an inch long. Wood reddish, hard, 
tough, and close-grained, very durable, and that from slow- 
growing old trees almost equal to Red Cedar. Quite a variable 



264 



PRACTICAL FOEESTRY. 



species, sometimes a wide-spreading, open-headed tree, with 
long, flexible, drooping branches, while other trees near by will 
assume a pyramidal form, or even fastigiate, the latter form 
more abundant on the dry, rocky sides of canyons in New 
Mexico than I ever found it elsewhere. A small tree, seldom 
over fifty feet high, with stem three or four feet in diameter, 
in California at el ovations of five to eight thousand feet, form- 
ing extensive forests, also in the high mountains, eastward 
through Southern Utah, Colorado, and southward to New 
Mexico, growing at elevations of from seven to twelve thou- 
sand feet, or up to what is called timber-line. Var. aristata, 
Engelmann, is described as having more ovate cones with thin- 
ner scales and shorter recurved or awn-like prickles. The spe- 
cies, however, is so variable, that a large number of varieties 
can be easily found in the region named, and I have often re- 
gretted, when examining them in their native habitats, that I 
could not transplant some of them to my garden in New Jer- 
sey. A few specimens that I sent home at the time of my last 
visit to the mountains, two years since, have lived, and were 
not in the least injured by the cold of the iDast two winters, and 
I am inclined to think that this very distinct western pine will 
succeed in our Eastern States if planted in a light, dry, or well- 
drained soil. 

P. Banksiana^ Lam. — Gray Pine, Scrub Pine. — Leaves in twos, 
from a very short sheath, only an inch long, quite rigid, and 
evenly distributed, and of a grayish -green color. Cones about 
two inches long, ovate-conical, curved or bent to one side, 
smooth, of a light gray color, scales almost or quite pointless. 
A small, low tree, twenty feet high, or only a low, straggling 
shrub. Common far North, and barely reaching our northern 
borders in Maine. Michigan, and westward to Dakota. 

P. Chilmahnana^ Engelm. — Chihuahua Pine. — This is another 
Mexican Pine that barely extends across the line into Southern 
Arizona, on the mountains. A small tree, growing thirty to 
forty feet high, and of little value, except where wood is quite 
scarce. 

P. contorta, Dougl. — Twisted -Branched Pine. — Leaves in xmirs, 
an inch to an inch and a half long, strongly and closely serru- 
late. Cones clustered, oval or cylindrical, two to two and a 
half inches long, scales smooth, or furnished with a very deli- 
cate prickle. Two cones and a pair of leaves are shown in fig- 
ure 56, cones somewhat reduced in size. Illustration from 



CONIFERS, OR CONE-BEARIKG TREES. 265 



The Garden," London, accompanying an article on this Pine by- 
Andrew Murray, Esq. Cones often remain closed for a year or 
two after they are mature. A small tree, rarely more than 
thirty feet high, with wide spreading and somewhat twisted 
branches. Wood light-colored, straight-grained, but usually 
too small to be of much value. A tree found in swampy 
grounds near the sea coast, 
f rom Calif ornia northward 
to Alaska. Var. Murray- 
ana, Engelm,, is a much 
taller-growing tree, some- 
times reaching a hundred 
feet high, and stem four 
to six feet in diameter, 
with longer leaves and 
cones, opening at matu- 
rity, all of which may be 
due to a more favorable 
soil and climate, as it is 
found in the higher Sierra 
Nevada, eastward to Utah, 
Colorado, and Northern 
New Mexico, but an oc- 
casional specimen will be 
met in these regions, cor- 
responding in almost every 
particular with the description of the species as it is found on 
the Northern Pacific Slope. Both species and variety succeed 
in our Atlantic States. 

P. Coultei'ij Don. — Coulter's Pine, Hooked-Cone Pine. — Leaves 
in threes, six to eleven inches long, quite large and coarse. 
Sheath an inch and a half long while young. Male flowers cy- 
lindrical and almost or quite two inches long, surrounded by 
eight or ten bracts, Cones very large, on short stems, long, 
oval-pointed, ten to fourteen inches long, and four or five in 
diameter, of a yellowish-brown color, each scale terminated by 
a long, very strong incurved point, in some instances this horn- 
like point is two inches long. Seed oval, dark-colored, nearly 
black, and a half inch or more in length. Nuttall says that 
this tree was first discovered by Dr. Coulter on the Santa Lucia 
Mountains, near the Mission of San Antonia, in the thirty-sixth 
degree of latitude, and within sight of the sea, at an elevation 
12 




Fig. 56.— LEAVES AND CONES OP 
PINUS CONTORTA. 



266 



PKACTICAL FOKESTEY. 



three to four thousand feet above it. Found in California, only 
in the Coast Ranges, principally in the southern part of the 
State. I obtained cones of this species, and several others grow- 
ing in the same region some twenty odd years ago, at a cost of 
ten dollars each, but have no personal acquaintance with the 
wood, but it is said to be brittle. The tree reaches a liight of a 
hundred feet in favorable situations. Too tender for cultivation 
in our Northern States, but may succeed south of Washington. 

P. ednlis, Engelm.— Pinon, Nut Pine. — Leaves variable in 
number, usually three in a sheath, but often only two ; about 
two inches long, rigid, and sharp-pointed. Cones two to three 
inches long, composed of numerous small scales at base, and a 
few larger ones, nearly an inch broad above. Scales blunt, 
with a yellow reflexed resin-covered tip. Seed a half inch or 
more in length, cylindrical, shell thin and brittle, kernel white, 
sweet, and excellent flavored. Seeds two at the base of the up- 
permost scales, and usually only one in the lowest fruiting 
row. This is the most highly prized of all the nut pines for its 
seeds, of which large quantities are gathered by the Indians 
residing in the regions where the tree abounds. The cones are 
whipped from the trees and then spread out in the sun, where 
they soon open, allowing the nut-like seeds to drop out. The 
trees are not, however, regular bearers, and in some localities a 
full crop is only produced every five to seven years. A low- 
growing tree, twenty to thirty feet high, with a stem a foot in 
diameter. Wood most excellent fuel. In groves, or scattering 
along the dry banks of canyons, and in stony soils, from Colo- 
rado, through New Mexico and Arizona. Hardy in our North- 
ern Atlantic States, but foliage sometimes burns in summer. 

P. Elliottii, Engelm. — Elliott's Pine. — A species said to be more 
or less common near the coast in South Carolina and Florida, 
growing among and often confounded with the common Old 
Field Pine (P. Tceda), It may prove to be the P. Tceda, var. 
heterophylla, of Elliott, described in his Botany of South Caro- 
lina, Vol. II, p. 636. Leaves not of a uniform number in a 
sheath. 

P. flexilis, James. — Western White Pine.— Leaves in fives, two 
to two and a half inches long, somewhat rigid and triangular, 
sharp-pointed, and densely crowded on the branchlets, of a 
rich, dark-green color. Cones cylindric tapering, four to six 
inches long, and two to three in diameter. Scales thick, an inch 
and a quarter broad, woody, and of a greenish -yellow color 



COKIFER^, OR CONE-BEARIKG TREES. 267 



when mature. Seeds rather large, irregular obovate, with 
firm-keeled margins. A handsome tree, resembling the White 
Pine of the Eastern States, but of a more compact habit, and 
the foliage darker green. It grows fifty to sixty feet high, with 
a very straight stem and smooth bark, until the trees become 
old. Wood white, soft, and easily worked, closely resembling 
the White Pine of the East. This species inhabits the moun- 
tain ranges from Montana to New Mexico, Arizona, and on the 
Inyo Mountain in California, at high elevations, or from 
eight to ten thousand feet. Var. albicaidis, Engelm., is a 
smaller tree with more oval cones, and not quite as long, 
thicker and somewhat pointed scales. An alpine form found in 
Montana and British Columbia, also in some of the mountains 
of California. A handsome and hardy tree, worthy of extended 
cultivation. 

?• glabra, Walter. — Spruce Pine. — Leaves in twos, three to 
four inches long, slender, scattered. Cones about two inches 
long, solitary, spines nearly obscure ; wings of seed light - 
colored, long and tapering. Branches and branchlets smooth 
and light-colored, or whitish. A tree forty to sixty feet high, 
with soft, white wood. A somewhat rare tree in swampy 
grounds through South Carolina, Florida, and westward. 

P, inops. Ait. — Jersey Pine, Scrub Pine. — Leaves in twos, and 
from two to three inches long, from a short sheath, scattered, 
rigid, and flat on the inner surface. Cones light-brown, oblong- 
ovoid, two to three inches long, often curved to one side. 
Scales armed with a straight, strong spine. The cones open 
when mature, allowing the small- winged seeds to fall out. 
Branches spreading and flexible, covered with a smooth, whitish 
bark while young, but becoming dark-colored and rough with 
age. A small tree, fifteen to forty feet high. Wood of little 
value except for fuel. A widely distributed species on Long 
Island, Staten Island, New Jersey, and southward to Florida. 

P. insignis, Dougl. — Monterey Pine. — Leaves in threes, four to 
six inches long and very slender, very closely serrate, bright 
green. Cones on short stems, in clusters, deflexed, three to five 
inches long, and two to three in diameter ; deep chestnut- 
brown, persistent, and remaining closed for several years. 
Scales near the base, very thick and roundish. Seeds grooved 
and rough, black, about a quarter of an inch long, with wings 
nearly an inch long, broadest above the middle. A large tree, 
eighty to one ku:«idr©d feet high near the coast in California, 



268 



PEACTICAL FORESTRT. 



south of San Francisco. A rapid-growing tree, with a beauti- 
ful fresh green fohage, but tender, except in our Southern 
States. 

P. Lambertianaj Dougl. — Lambert's Pine, Sugar Pine. — Leaves 
in fives, three to four inches long, from short deciduous sheaths, 
with five or six lines of stomata on each side. Cones twelve to 
eighteen inches long, and three or fom* in diameter, gradually 
tapering to a point on peduncles three inches in length, pendu- 
lous when mature, and of a brown color, destitute of resin. 
Scales loosely imbricated, rounded above, without spine or 
prickle. Seeds oval, nearly a half inch long, kernel sweet ; 
wing almost twice as long as the seed, of a dark color. A very 
large tree, one hundred to three hundred feet high, and ten to 
twenty feet in diameter, with branches in whorls, bark smooth 
and Hght-colored, except on the stem and larger branches. 
Wood white, soft, resembling that of the White Pine, but a lit- 
tle coarser-grained. More or less abundant throughout CaU- 
fomia and northward to the Columbia River, on both slopes of 
the Sierra Nevada, and at elevations of from three to eight 
thousand feet. The exudations from the partly burned trees 
acquires a sweetish taste, whence the name of "Sugar Pine." 
A valuable forest tree, and seems to be as hardy in my grounds 
as the common White Pine, which it very much resembles 
while young, but when well estabhshed, grows far more rapidly, 
becoming rather tall and naked in appearance, unless the lead- 
ing shoots are headed back. 

P. mitiSj Michx. — Yellow Pine, Short-Leaved Pine. — Leaves in 
twos, three to five inches long, with long sheath, slender, some- 
what channelled, and of a dark green color. Cones oval or ob- 
long, about two inches long, usually solitary, with a short, 
incurved spine on each scale. Seed very small, with a reddish 
wing. A tree forty to fifty feet high, with stem one to two 
feet in diameter. Wood yellow, hard, durable, and employed 
for ship building, spars, masts, plank, etc. In New Jersey, and 
southward to Florida, also in Missouri and Arkansas. 

P. monophylla, Torr. and Frem. — Fremont's Pine, Nut Pine. — 
Leaves, one or two in a sheath, from one and a half to two and 
a half inches long, when in pairs, flat on the inner side, single 
ones round, very rigid, and sharp-pointed. Leaves on terminal 
branchlets, often bluish, glaucous-green or silvery. Cones two 
inches long, or a little more, nearly round, of a light brown 
color, scale thick, recurved, without spines. Seed quite large, 



CO^TIFER^, OR COJ^E-BEARIXG TREES. 269 



wingless, and kernel sweet, edible, used for food by the Indians. 
A small tree, twenty to thirty feet high, with stem twelve to 
eighteen inches in diameter, but often only a low, straggling 
bush. Wood white and soft, resinous, making good fuel. In 
the Coast Ranges of California, Arizona, Southern Utah, and 
Nevada. Plants raised from seed, from the higher mountains 
of Nevada, have proved perfectly hardy in my grounds, neither 
receiving protection from the sun in summer. Plants of slow 
growth, but are unique, differing widely from all the other 
species of pine with which I am familiar. 

P. montlcola^ Dougl. — Mountain Pine. — Leaves in fives, three 
to four inches long, obtuse, smooth, glaucous-green. Cones 
cylindrical, slender, four to eight inches long, yellowish-brown, 
with loosely imbricated, pointed, but spineless scales. Seed 
small, with large wings. A tree sixty to eighty feet high, and 
sometimes three feet in diameter. A species closely allied to 
the White Pine, and resembles it in growth, leaves and wood. 
Cahfornia, in the Sierra Nevadas, and northward to Washing- 
ton Territory, at elevations of from seven to ten thousand feet. 
Hardy, and thrives in light, sandy soils, better than in those 
that are moist and heavy. 

P. mnricata^ Don. — Bishop's Pine. — Leaves in pairs, four to six 
inches long, quite broad, rigid, and strongly serrulate, and of a 
bright-green color. Cones sessile, about three inches long, 
ovate, in clusters, crowded with thick, wedge-shaped scales, 
with stout, short prickles. The cones are very persistent, re- 
maining on the trees for many years, and the scales remaining 
closed for a long time. I have cones of this species in my cabi- 
net, gathered twenty years ago, and although kept in a warm 
room, only a few of them have opened sufficient to show the 
seed. A medium sized or large tree, varying in hight in dif- 
ferent regions, from twenty-five to over a hundred feet high, 
with reddish-brown, roughish bark. In California, only near 
the coast, where it is exposed to the wind and fogs of the 
ocean, and principally in swamps and wet soils. 

P. Parryaiia, Engelm.— Parry's Pine. — Leaves three to five in a 
sheath, mostly four, an inch to an inch and a half long. Cones 
sub-globose, an inch and a half to two inches long, thick, with 
strongly elevated knobs. Seed oval, about a half inch long, 
with a thin, light brown mottled shell. A small tree, twenty 
to thirty feet high, collected only by Dr. C. C. Parry, forty 
miles southeast of San Diego, across the border in Mexico, and 



270 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



at an altitude of two or three thousand feet. This species is 
unknown to me, and the above description is taken from 
Botany of California, Vol. II, p. 124. 

P. pondercsa, Dougl. — Yellow Pine, Heavy Wooded Pine. — 
Leaves in threes, five to nine inches long, broad, coarse, twisted, 
flexible, and of a deep or grayish-green color. Cones oval, three 
to four inches long, ovate, reflexed, clustered, scales with a 
stout, straight, or recurved prickle. Seeds dark brown, with 
long, yellowish wings. Branchlets very thick, with a reddish- 
brown bark ; that on the old stems very thick and deeply fur- 
rowed. One of the largest and most common pines in the 
Rocky Mountain regions, and westward to the Pacific. Trees of 
these species have been found that were three hundred feet 
high, with stem twelve to fifteen feet in diameter, but the more 
usual size is from eighty to one hundred feet. The wood is 
quite variable, but usually it is rather coarse-grained, hard, and 
heavy, seldom soft, or as easily worked as the White Pine or 
closely allied species. I have examined and used many thou- 
sand of feet of lumber from this tree, and while admitting its 
value for coarse work, it is inferior as a finishing lumber to 
many other species. I think, however, that this tree is well 
adapted to dry, windy, and exposed situations, and shoukl be 
tried on the western prairies, especially on fight, dry, or stony 
soils. Several varieties are described in botanical works, but 
Dr. Engelmann only recognizes two, viz., var. Jeffreyi, a tree 
with a more rounded top, darker bark and paler leaves than the 
species. Cones also longer and lighter brown. Var. scopii- 
lorum, is a smaUer tree, only growing about a hundred feet 
high, with shorter leaves, and these often in pairs. Cones only 
two or three inches long, grayish-brown, with stout prickles. 
The last variety is foimd throughout the Eocky Mountains, 
from British Columbia, to New Mexico and Arizona. 

P. pnngons, Michx.— Table Mountain Pine.— Leaves two in a 
sheath, and about two inches and a haK long, rigid, stout, and 
of a pale yellowish-green color. Cones three inches long, ovate, 
sessfie, usuaUy three or four in a cluster, with woody scales, 
armed at the apex with a stout, slightly incurved spine on the 
upper scales, and recurved on the lower ones. Trees with very 
irregular-growing branches, and the buds covered with resin. 
A small tree, thu'ty to fifty feet high, with stem a foot or a Ht- 
tle more in diameter. It is not a handsome or rapid-growing 
tree, but quite a rare one, or at least somewhat Hmited in its 



COKIFER^, OR COKE-BE ARIKG TREES. 271 



range, being found rather sparsely in Southern Pennsylvania, 
North Carolina and Georgia. 

P, resinosa, Alton. — Red Pine, Norway Pine. — Leaves in twos, 
five to six inches long, nearly cylindrical from long sheaths, 
rigid and straight, dark green. Cones two inches long, conical, 
usually in clusters, scales without points. Branchlets with red- 
dish smooth bark. Wood hard and compact, light-colored and 
quite durable. A rather large tree, sixty to eighty feet high in 
the Eastern States, bufc specimens have been found in Michigan 
measuring a himdred and fifty feet. No large forests of this 
species are known, but it is found in Pennsylvania, northward 
to the Canadas, and west to Minnesota. 

P. rigida, Miller. — Pitch Pine. — Leaves in threes, and from 
three to five inches long, from very short sheaths, rigid and 
flattened, or slightly angled on 
one side, of a bright, but not 
very dark-green color. Cones 
ovoid-conical, and of the size 
and form shown in figure 57, 
mostly solitary, but occasional- 
ly clustered, three or four to- 
gether ; the scales terminated 
with a small, stout prickle. 
Seed small, winged. A medium 
sized tree, forty to seventy feet 
high, with stem two to three 
feet in diameter. Wood hard, 
coarse-grained, full of resin, 
and generally so well studded 
with knots as to be of little 
value except for fuel. A rather 
handsome tree when found 
in good soil and with room 
enough to grow without being 
crowded. More abundant in 
swamps and low grounds than 
elsewhere, but often found of 
large size on high, sandy land, slate and sandstone ridges. 
From Maine to Georgia, east of the AUeghanies. 

Var. Serotina, Michx. (Pond Pine), has a little larger leaves 
and more ovate cones, otherwise the same as the species. Dr. 




Fig. 57. — CONE OF PINUS RIGIDA.. 



272 



PEACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Chapman and !Mr. Grordon, of England, recognize the variety 
as a distinct species. 

P. Sabinlana, Dougl. — Sabine's Pine, Great Prickly-Coned Pine. 
— Leaves in threes, eight to twelve inches long, slender-droop- 
ing, of a light glaucous-green color. Cones eight to ten inches 
long, and four to six in diameter, of a deep mahogany-brown 
color, with large, projecting incurved points. Seed large, 
almost an inch long, sub-cylindric, with a hard, dark brown 
shell, and a stiff wing, only about a half inch long, with a stiff 




Fig. 58.— PT^^rs sabiniana. 



rim. A large, round-topped tree, with thick, rough bark, and 
rather slender, graceful branchlets. Seed used as food by the 
Indians, but are not so pleasant tasted as those of P. edulis. A 
large tree, fifty to a hun.dred feet hip:h, and stem two to fom* 
feet in diameter. Wood wliite, soft, rather even-grained, but 
contains a large amount of resin. Inhabits California in the 
Coast Panges, and the foot hills of the Sien-a Nevadas, up to an 
altitude of about four thousand feet. Like most of the Pines 
from the Coast Ranges of California, this species does not thrive 
in the climate of our Northern Atlantic States, but will proba- 



CONIFEE^^ OR CONE-BEARING TREES. 



2?3 



bly thrive further South. The general form of Sabine's Pine, 
when young, is shown in figure 58, taken from a cultivated spe- 
cies at the time the new growth is pushing out in spring. 

P. Strobns, Linnaeus. — White Pine, Weymoutli Pine. — Leaves 
five in a sheath, as shown in figure 59, and from three to four 
inches long, slender, soft, and slightly whitish on the under side. 
Cones from four to six inches long, cylindrical, somewhat bent 
to one side, slightly drooping on rather short stalks, with 
smooth, thin scales, unarmed. Seed small, 
with a long wing. A well known and valu- 
able tree, growing from one hundred to a 
hundred and fifty feet high, with stem some- 
times four feet in diameter. Wood white, 
soft, and free from knots, and the most ex- 
tensively used of ?,ny lumber in America. 
But the extensive forests of White Pine, 
which were to be found in our Northern 
States a half century ago, are rapidly disap- 
pearing, and first-class pine lumber is al- 
ready both scarce and dear. There ai'e still 
several large forests of the tree both in the 
United States and the Canadas, but they will 
not last long at the rate at which they are 
being cut off at the present time. The White 
Pine will grow rapidly on light, poor, sandy 
soils, and there are millions of acres of such 
lands, that could not be put to a better use 
than planting it with White Pine. It is not 
only a useful and handsome forest tree, but 
very valuable for ornamental purposes. There 
are several handsome ornamental varieties in 
cultivation, the most distinct is the var. alba Fis^. 59. 

or nivea, with silvery-white foliage, and var. white pine. 
nana, a dwarfish, compact little bush, with a broad, flattishhead, 

P. Taeda, Linn. — Loblolly Pine, Old Field Pine, Frankincense 
Pine. — Leaves in threes, eight to ten inches long, from rather 
long sheaths, slender, and of a light green color. Cones three 
to four inches long, oblong-conical, the scales armed with a 
short, rigid, straight spine. The cones are usually solitary, but 
sometimes in pairs. A tree fifty to one hundred feet high, but 
in some favorable situations even larger, with stem two to three 
feet in diameter. Wood variable, but usually rather coarse- 




274 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



grained and much inclined to warp and shrink when cut into 
boards and plank. A common tree in swamps, and old fields 
and woods throughout the Southern Atlantic States, from the 
southern part of Delaware, Virginia, and south to Florida, and 
also sparingly westward to Eastern Texas. 

P. tuberculataj D. Don. — Tuberculated-Coned Pine, Cahfornia 
Pine. — Leaves in threes, four to seven inches long, from a short, 
smooth sheath, shghtly serrulate, and of a bright-green color. 
Cones three to four inches long, oblong-conical, and about two 
inches in diameter, in small clusters, very persistent, pendu- 
lous, of a gray color, the scales angular-tipped, with a sharp, 
stout prickle. A small tree, thirty to forty feet high, with stem 
eight to twelve inches in diameter. Wood hard, dark-colored, 
but too small to be of much value, excejot for fuel. In the 
Coast Ranges of California and southward. 

rOREIG>^ SPECIES AXD VARIETIES. 

Of the foreign species of the Pine there are quite a large num- 
ber that thrive equally as well with us as those from our own 
forests, and a few of them may prove even better adapted to 
certain soils or situations than any of our indigenous species, 
but this can only be determined through more extended ex- 
perience with the latter. A few species of the European Pines 
have been quite extensively cultivated in this country for orna- 
mental purposes, as well as for screens and wind-breaks, proba- 
bly because they were to be obtained more cheaply at the nur- 
series than the best of our native species, but whatever the 
cause, the fact is quite apparent that several of the European 
Pines have long been favorite ornamental trees in our Atlantic 
States, where large and old specimens can be seen in great 
abundance. Nearly all the species of the Pine indigenous to 
the cooler region of Europe and Asia, are quite hardy in our 
Northern States, while those from warmer climates, including 
Mexico, do well in the South, but I shall only refer to a few of 
the best known, and to these very briefly. 

P. Austriaca, Hoess. — Austrian Pine. — Leaves two in a sheath, 
long, slender, rigid, incuiwed, and sharply-pointed. Cones two 
to three inches long, conical, slightly recurved. Scales smooth, 
with a dull spine in the center. A well known and now com- 
mon tree, but of comparative recent introduction, and said not 
to have been knovm in Great Britain previous to 1835, but has 
been raised in such immense quantities that for many years the 



COKIFER.^, Oil COKE-BEARING TREES. 275 



plants could be purchased in the nurseries of Europe and in this 
country for a few dollars per thousand. The Austrian Pine 
grows to a very large size, often more than a liundred feet. 
Wood rather coarse-grained, but strong and moderately durable. 
The general habit of the tree is broad and massive, and it is of 
a very rapid and sturdy growth. Native of Lower Austria, 
Styria and adjacent regions. 

P. Ayaealiuite, Ehrenberg. — Mexican White Pine. — Leaves in 
fives, long, very slender and drooping. One of the few Mexi- 
can Pines that have jjroved moderately hardy in the latitude of 
New York. It is a large tree in its native country, growing a 
hundred feet high, resembling both in growth, foliage, and 
wood, our common White Pine, although the leaves are longer 
and more pendulous. 

P. Cembra, Linn. — Swiss Stone Pine. — Leaves in fives, two to 
three inches long, very slender, triangular, straight, very nu- 
merous and crowded on the branches, and of a dark green color. 
Cones three inches or more in length, ovate, erect, with short 
but sKghtly hooked scales. Seeds large and nut-like, kernel edi- 
ble. A very compact-growing, handsome tree, in its native 
country reaching a hight of a hundred and twenty feet. Na- 
tive of the Alps, at elevations of four to six thousand feet, also 
from the Tyrol to Mount Cenis, in Austria, forming large for- 
ests. Wood resembling the White Pine of this country, and 
quite valuable. This species was early introduced into the 
United States, and has long been a favorite ornamental tree, 
but I regret to say that many of the oldest and finest specimens 
in the country have been killed by some disease, the origin of 
which is as yet unknown. Sometimes all the large trees in a 
neighborhood will die out very suddenly, the cause of this death 
being involved in mystery. A specimen in my grounds twenty 
years old, is perfectly healthy, but I have no great confidence 
in its longevity, for the reasons given. 

Var. 3Iandshuria, Regel., is found in Japan, and of a more 
dwarf and compact habit than the species, otherwise scarcely 
distinguishable. 

P. densiflora, Siebold. — Japan Pine. — Leaves in twos, about 
four inches long, rather large and rigid, convex above and con- 
cave beneath, very smooth, and dark, shining green ; sharp- 
pointed and crowded on the smaller branch lets, dropping from 
below when one or two years old, giving to the older branches 
a rather naked appearance. A common tree throughout Japan, 



276 



PEACTICAL rOKESTRY. 



but most abundant in the northern and colder regions of the 
country. A small tree, only thirty to forty feet high. Wood 
excellent in quality, but not large enough for lumber. Hardy, 
and of quite rapid growth, while young. 

P. excelsa, Wallich. — Bhotan Pine. — Leaves five in a sheath, 
and six or seven inches long, very slender, and of a glaucous, 
green color, and very pendulous. Cones six to nine inches 
long, and only about two inches in diameter, drooping and 
clustered, with broad, thick, wedge-shaped imbricated scales. 
One of the most graceful of all the White Pines, but very sub- 
ject to blight in this country, and for this reason cannot be 
recommended for general cultivation. Native of Nepal and 
Bhotan on the Himalayas, at elevations of six to ten thousand 
feet. 

P. Laricio, Poiret. — Corsican Pine. — Leaves in twos, four to 
six inches long, slender, and very wavy or somewhat twisted. 
Cones two to three inches long, conical-oblong, recurved, and 
of a light brown color ; scales with a minute prickle or none at 
all. A large and noble tree, somewhat resembling in general 
appearance the Austrian Pine, but leaves of a slightly lighter 
green color, and readily distinguished by their shape. A valua- 
ble, hard, and rapid-growing tree from the South of Europe, in 
the Island of Corsica, where it is said to grow to a hight of a 
hundred and fifty feet. There are several varieties described in 
botanical works, but none equal in value to the species. 

P. Massoniana, Siebold. — Masson's Pine. — Leaves in twos, four 
to six inches long, rather stiff, twisted, convex on the outer 
side and concave within, quite straight, sharp-pointed, and of a 
bright green color. Cones an inch to an inch and a half long, 
conical, incurved, solitary, but usually very numerous, with 
closely imbricated scales, terminated with slender prickles. 
An upright, compact-growing tree, from forty to fifty feet 
high, native of Japan, and very widely distributed from the sea- 
coast to the mountains. The Japanese have several varieties of 
this species in cultivation, and one known as The Sun Ray 
Pine," was introduced a few years since by the Messrs. Parsons 
& Sons, Flushing, N. Y. , and who have propagated it to a hmit- 
ed extent. The leaves of this variety are variegated with 
golden-yellow, a most distinct and unique variety. 

P. Mngho, Bauhin. — Mugho Pine. — Leaves in twos, one and a 
haK to two inches long, rigid, twisted, and of a very dark green 



COKIFER^, OR COi^E-BEARIKG TREES. 



377 



color. Cones small, an inch to an inch and a quarter long, and 
three-fourths of an inch in diameter, dark-mahogany color ; 
scales thin, with a triangular point, and a very minute prickle. 
A dwarfish tree or shrub with numerous ascending or widely- 
spreading branches. Quite a variable species when raised from 
seed, some plants assuming an erect habit, others spreading and 
dwarfish. My oldest specimen, twenty-five years from seed, is 
eight feet high and about ten feet in diameter. 

P. pyrenaica. La Peyrouse. — Pyrenean Pine. — Leaves two in a 
sheath, and from four to seven inches long, usually crowded in 
tufts at the extremities of the branchlets. The color of the 
bark on the young growth is a bright orange color, an excellent 
character by which the species may be distinguished in sum- 
mer. Cones two to three inches long, and about an inch and a 
quarter in diameter at the broadest part ; scales usually with- 
out prickles. A large tree growing sixty to eighty feet high, 
and native of the forests of Southern France and Spain, in the 
Pyrenees, mostly on the Spanish side. 

P. sylyestiis, Linn. — Scotch Pine. — Leaves in twos, from an 
inch and a half to two and a half long, twisted, quite rigid, and 
of a glaucous- green color, or what is sometimes called a gray- 
ish-green. Cones two to three inches long, of a grayish-brown 
color, with a quadrangular recurved point. Cones ripen 
the second year, but do not usually open until the following 
spring. An old and well known tree, inhabiting the colder 
regions of Central Europe, especially in the Tyrolian, Swiss, 
and Vosgian Mountains. In Europe the economic value of this 
tree is said to be unsurpassed by any other tree known, but the 
wood is not equal to our White or Southern-yellow Pine, 
although it is employed for similar purposes. There are a large 
number of varieties of the Scotch Pine, principally cultivated 
in Europe as ornamental trees.. 



278 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



CHAPTER XVIIL 
ADDITIONAL LIST OF CONIFERS. 

There are several genera of exotic conifers that are not rep- 
resented in the United States by any indigenous species, and 
while they may never be planted here as forest trees, still quite 
a number have already been introduced and cultivated for 
ornament, and a few among them are no doubt worthy of a 
passing notice on this account, if not for their economic value. 

AURICARTA iMBRicATA, Fa\oT\, —CMU Fine, 

The leaves have little or no resemblance to those of the com- 
mon Pines, but are more like immense scales, from one 
to an inch and a half long, very broad at the base, 
tapering to a sharp point, and closely imbricated on 
the large, cane-like branchlets, which are completely 
covered with the dark green, and very rigid leaves. The cones 
are large, seven to eight inches long, nearly round, but usually 
a little broader than long. The seeds are large, wedge-shaped, 
and one to two inches long. A large tree, from one hundred to 
a hundred and fifty feet high, and native of the Andes of South 
America. Not hardy in our Northern States, but often raised 
in pots and boxes, and given protection in winter. Said to be 
perfectly hardy in England, where it is quite extensively planted 
for ornament. 

Auricaria Cookii, Brown. — Captain Cook's Auricaria, — Leaves 
smaller and more slender than those of the last, and somewhat 
needle-shaped. Branchlets numerous and slender, the tree hav- 
ing quite a graceful habit. Cones three to four inches long, oval, 
and each scale terminated with sharp reflexed spine as shown 
in figure 60. A remarkable tall-growing tree, sometimes two 
hundred feet high, with a very slender stem. A native of New 
Caledonia and New Hebrides, and first discovered by Captain 
Cook in 1774. Quite tender even in England. 

A. Canninghamii, Alton. — Moreton Bay Pine. — Also from Aus- 
tralia, where it is found — forming large forests, and growing 
one hundred or more feet in hight. Leaves small, stout, and 
very closely appressed. Cones the smallest of any species in 
the genus. 



ADDITIOIS'AL LIST OF CONIFERS. 



279 



A. excelsa, Brown. — Norfolk Island Pine. — An enormously 
large tree, some specimens having been measured that were 
two hundred and twenty-five feet high, and stems eleven fee b 
in diameter. Tender, like all of the Australian species, 

A. Rulei, Mueller. — Rule's Auricaria. — A rather small, dense, 




Fi^. 60. — GONE OF cook's AURICA.RTA. 



and compact tree, with dark, glossy-green leaves, and large 
globular cones. From Australia. 

CEDRUS ATLAKTiCA, Manotti. — African or Mount Atlas 

Cedars, 

Leaves from one half to an inch long, almost cylindrical, 
straight, rigid and sharp-pointed. Cones two to three inches 



280 



PKACTICAL FORESTRY. 



long, oval, resinous. Scales flat, smooth, and closely appressed. 
A large tree, somewhat of the habit of the common Larch 
while young, but more spreading as they become old. From 
the Atlas Range in Northern Africa, where it grows to a hun- 
dred feet high. Hardy in England, but not in the United 
States, north of Washington, but often succeeds in sheltered 
positions, somewhat further north. 

€edrns Deodora. Loudon. — Deodar Cedar.— A tree closely re- 
sembling the last, but with sUghtly longer and nearly four- 
angled leaves. Branches spreading and drooping. Cones four 
to five inches long, ovate, scales thin and closely appressed. A 
noble tree, from the Himalayan Mountains. It has been in 
cultivation for many years in this country, and at one time 
gave promise of being quite hardy, even in our Northern States, 
but now, few persons would care to risk it in any considerable 
number, even in the Middle States. When planted in sheltered 
positions, it may occasionally thrive as far north as New York, 
but is is not to be depended upon much north of Washington. 

C. Libani, Barrelier. — Cedar of Lebanon. — Leaves about an 
inch long, needle-form, very much hke those of the Larch, but 
slightly more rigid and sharper pointed. Cones similar to the 
last, but scales with slightly denticulate margins. A tree of 
great historical interest, from the mountains of Lebanon in Asia 
Minor, also in the mountains of Amanus and Taurus. Early 
introduced into England, where it appears to thrive as well as 
in its native country. This species is probably the hardiest of 
the genus, and succeeds moderately well as far north as New 
York in sheltered positions, and in dry, well-drained soils. 
There are a few old specimens of this Cedar in the suburbs of 
New York City, that have fruited for many years. 

CRYPTOMERiA JAPONIC A, Don. — Japan Cedar. 

A genus of only this one species, which is a lofty tree in its 
native countries, China and Japan, where it grows to a hight 
of a hundred feet. Wood similar to our White Pine, and held 
in great esteem by the Chinese and Japanese. The leaves are 
small, from one half to three-fourths of an inch long, somewhat 
quadrangular, and sharp-pointed. Cones small, or about as 
long as the leaves, with numerous loose scales. There are quite 
a number of varieties in cultivation. A. handsome, but rather 
uncertain tree in our Northern States, and while an occasional 



ADDITIONAL LIST OF COKIFER^. 



281 



specimen succeeds without protection as far north as New 
Yorkj it cannot be considered as hardy north of Washington. 

ccjKjq^ii^GHAMiA siKEKSis, K. Brown. — Lance- Leaved 

Pine. 

This is another genus of oaly one species. A small tree, 
growing from thirtj^^ to forty feet high in Southern China, 
where it often covers the sides of the mountains, forming 
almost impenetrable thickets. Its leaves are from one to two 
inches long, flat and thin, tapering to a point. Cones an inch 
to an inch and a half long, oval, and mostly in clusters. Scales 
very small, and almost obscure, forming merely a ridge, adher- 
ing to a large, prominent, triangular bract. A very common, 
low-spreading shrub in nurseries and pleasure grounds, but sel- 
dom seen in good form or large enough to be classed among 
trees. Probably a little more hardy than the Auricaria^s, which 
it resembles, but I cannot recommend it for planting out in ex- 
posed situations in any of our Northern States. 

sciADOPiTYS VERTiciLLATA, Siebold aiid Zuccarini. — 

Umbrella Pine. 

A very curious and remarkable conifer, from Mount Koja- 
san, in the Island of Nippon, Japan, where it forms a large 
spreading tree, a hundred feet high. Introduced into England 
in 1861, and a few years later into this country. The leaves are 
from three to four inches long, and about one-eighth broad, 
double-ribbed, leathery, and blunt-pointed ; dark-green, and 
crowded in whorls of thirty to forty at the joints or nodes of 
the branchlets. Cones about three inches long, and an inch 
and a half in diameter, solitary, with wedge-shaped corrugated, 
persistent scales. This curious and unique conifer gives prom- 
ise of being quite hardy in our Northern States, but so few have 
as yet been tested in exposed situations, that a decision on this 
point might be considered as premature. It is a rather slow- 
growing tree while yoimg, but may improve with age. 



282 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



TEEES NOT GENERALLY KNOWN. 

Bronssonetia papyriferaj Vent. — Paper Mulberry. — A rather 
common, small tree, in the gardens and parks of our Eastern 
States, and formerly quite extensively planted for ornament, 
but its popularity appears to be waning of late years. It is a 
low-growing tree, with a broad-spreading head, large, rough, 
ovate, or slightly heart-shaped leaves, often three cleft, or vari- 
ously lobed. It is closely allied to the Osage Orange. Bark 
very fibrous. There are several species or varieties, all native 
of Japan. 

Cedrela Sinensis j Juss. — Chinese Cedrela. — A strong-growing 
tree, native of China, with foliage resembling the ailantus, but 
bearing long trusses of fragrant white flowers. Its resemblance 
to the ailantus, led Carriere in *'Eevue Horticoie," 1865, to give 
it the name of Ailantus flavescens^ but it is more closely relat- 
ed to to the Melia azedarach, or 'China Tree, described on page 
172. It will probably prove to be as hardy as the common 
Ailantus. 

Cercidipliyllnm Japonicnm, Sieb. and Zucc. — A tall, slender- 
growing tree, with smooth bark, and medium sized heart-shaped 
leaves, of a purplish color when young, but becoming bright, 
glossy-green with age. Flowers very small and inconspicuous. 
A rare tree from Japan, and although introduced some twenty 
or more years ago, it has not as yet become common or even 
plentiful in nurseries. It is quite hardy in the neighborhood 
of New York City, where the oldest specimens in this country 
are now growing. 

Eucalyptus globulus. — Fever Tree. — A large leaved, strong- 
scented evergreen tree, introduced from Australia, and exten- 
sively planted in California, where it has been much praised on 
account of its rapid growth. In its native country it is said to 
grow two hundred feet high, but the wood is soft, and of little 
value. There are an immense number of species of the Euca- 
lyptus, ail native of Australia, Hew Holland, and Van Diemen's 
Land, consequently tender in climates where there are frosts in 
winter. Their only merit is rapid growth and probably some 
slight curative properties in the balsamic odors emitted by the 
leaves. 

Idesia polycarpa. — Maxim. — A large and handsome tree, native 
of Japan, with large, sub-cordate leaves, and compound racemes 



TEEES NOT GENERALLY KNOWN. 



283 



of dioecious, one-petaled flowers. Fruit an oranged-colored edi- 
ble berry, with many seeds imbedded in a pulp. Cultivated in 
Japan for ornament and its edible fruit. Propagated readily 
from seed and cuttings of the roots. Thrives splendidly in the 
Southern States, but I am not fully satisfied of its hardiness in 
the North, although it is reported to have withstood the cold of 
winter in the neighborhood of Boston, while unprotected speci- 
mens have been winter-killed m the suburbs of New York City. 

Phellodeadroii Amnrense, Eupr. — Chinese Cork Tree. — A medium- 
sized tree from China. It is closely allied to the Prickly Ash 
(Xanthoxylum), having large pinnate leaves, which become 
bright red in autumn, remaining on the tree quite late. Another 
species is found in Japan, the P. Japonicum, Both species are 
in cultivation in this country, and are apparently quite hardy, 
at least they have not been injured by cold in my grounds. 

Pterocarya fraxinifolla. — Spach.— A medium-sized, but rapid- 
growing tree from Eussia and Asia. It is closely related to the 
Walnuts, and De Lamarck describes it under the name of Jug- 
Zans/ma?mifoZm or Ash-leaved "Walnut. The Pterocaryas are 
moderately hardy in our Northern States, two species having 
been introduced, the above and P. stenoptera, Cas. DC, but 
-the latter is usually mentioned in nurserymen's catalogues un- 
der the name of P. Icevigata. 

ADDITIONS AND COEEECTIONS. 

Ccrcocarpns, HBK. — Mountain Mahogany. — Shrubs or small 
trees belonging to the Eosacece or Eose Family, only four or 
five species in the genus, all inhabiting the interior of North 
America, and only one large enough to be classed among trees. 

C. ledifolins, Nutt. — Mountain Mahogany. — Leaves thick, 
single, evergreen, narrow lanceolate, with more or less 
revolute margins. Flowers small, without petals. Fruit 
roundish, long, hairy, included in the enlarged calyx tube. 
Seeds linear, with thin wings. A smaU tree or shrub, but some- 
times thirty to fifty feet high. Wood very hard, dark ma- 
hogany-colored, rather brittle, and usually too small to be of 
value. Native of Oregon, Idaho, Utah, and on the slopes of the 
Sierra Nevada. 

€t paryifolius. — Nutt.— Leaves more or less silky, and not so 
thick as the last, and broader or cuneate-obovate, one to one 



284 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



inch and a half long, on short stalks. Flowers velvety, on short 
stems. A large shrub, but sometimes twenty feet high. Wy- 
oming Territory, Utah, New Mexico, and in the Coast Eanges 
of California. 

Fraxinus quadrangnlata, Michx. — Blue Ash. — Leaflets five to 
nine, oblong-ovate or oblong-pointed, sharply serrate, downy 
beneath when young, becoming smooth when mature. Branch- 
lets square. Seeds linear-oblong, blunt at both ends and winged 
all round. A large tree, sixty to eighty feet high, with a wide 
spreading top, and leaves large, sometimes eighteen inches 
long. Wood similar to that of the White Ash, and excellent. 
Moist, rich woods, in the Middle and Western States. 

Porleria augustifolinm, Gray. — A genus closely related to the 
Larrea and Guiacum, and found along the boundary between 
Mexico and the United States, from Southern Texas to Cali- 
fornia, on the dry plains. It is a small tree, with hard and 
heavy wood with a brownish color. It has a local reputation as 
a medicine for certain diseases of the urinal organs. 

Ptelea trifoliata. Linn. — Hop-Tree. — Leaflets ovate-pointed, 
downy when young. Fruit a two-celled and two-seeded 
samara-winged all round, resembling an exaggerated elm seed. 
They contain a bitter principle, and have been used as a substi- 
tute for hops, hence the common name. It i^ closely allied to 
the common ailantus. Generally a large shrub, but occa- 
sionally a tree twenty-five feet high. Pennsylvania, Wiscon- 
sin, and Southward to Florida. 



INDEX. 



Common and Scientific names in Roman. Synonyms in italics. 



AbeleTree 169 

Abies balsamea, Marshall 250 

Pirn IS balsamea^ L. 

A. balsamifera, Micbx. 

Picea balsdmea. Loud . 

A. bracteata, Niitt 250 

Plniis veniista, Doul;!. 
Pinus bracteata, Don. 
Picea bracteata, Lindl. 

A. cephaionicn, Loudon 252 

Picea cephalonica, Loud. 

A. concolor, Lindl 250 

Picea concolor, Gordon. 



Pinm concolor. Engehn. 
A. Lowiana, Murr. 
A. grandis^ of California botanists. 
A. amabilis, Watson. 
Var. A. Parsor)iana, Hort. 

A. Fraseri, Lindl 251 

Pinus Fraseri, Pursh. 

A. graudis, Lindl 251 

Pinus grandis, Doug). 
Pinus amabilis, Dougl. 
Picea grandis, Loud. 
A. Gordoniana, Carriere. 



A. magnitlca, Murr 251 

A. amabilis, of California botanists. 
A. nobilis, Lindl 252 

Pinus nobilis, Dougl. 

Picea 7iobilis, Loud. 
A. Nordmanniana, Link 253 

Picea Nc/rdnianniana, Loud. 
A. pectinata, DC 253 

Picea pectinata, Loud. 

A.jJicea, Lindl. 

Pinus picea, Willd. 
A. Pichta, Fischer 253 

Abies Sibi7ica, Ledcb. 

Picea Pichta, Loud. 
A. Find row, Spach 253 

Picea Pindrow, Loud. 

P Herbertiana^ Madd. 

P. Naptha, Knight. 
A. Pinsapo, Boiss 253 

Picea Pinsapo, Loud. 
A. subalpina, Engelm 252 

A. bifolia, Murr. 

A. amabilis. Pari. 

A. lasiocarpa, Hook. 



A. grandis, of Colorado botanists. 
Var. foLlax, Engelm. A. amabilis, 
Newberry. 



A. Webbiana, Lindley 253 

A. spectabilis, Spach. 

Picea Webbiana, Loud. 

Acacia Greggii, Gray 88 

A. Three-tliorned 152 

Acer, Maple, species of .88 

A. campestre, Linn 96 

A. circinatum, Piirsh 92 

A. dasycarpum, Ehrhart 89 

A. enocarpmn, Michx. 

A. glaucum, M. Bieb. 

A. giabrum, Torr 93 

A. grandidentatum, Nutt 93 

A. Japonicum, Thunberg 98 

A. Lobelii, Ten 97 

A. macrophyllum, Pursh 92 

A. monspessulanum, Linn 97 

A. Negundo, Linn 93 

A. Pennsylvanicum, Linn 92 

A. striatum. Lam. 

A. canadense, Duham. 

A. h.ybridum, Bosc. 

A. Plantanoides, Linn 96 

A. polymorphum, Sieb. & Zucc ... 98 

A. Pseudo Platan us. Linn 95 

A. montannm, Lamk. 

A. rubrum, Linn 91 

A. Brummondii, Hook, and Arn. 

A. rubrum fu hens 92 

A. rubrum globosum 92 

A. rubrum pyi-amidalis 92 

A. rufinerve, Siebold 98 

A. saccharinum, Wani*- 89 

A. spicatum, Lamk. 92 

A. montanum. Ait. 

A. Tartaricum, Linn 97 

A. Tartaricum Ginnala 97 

^scules, Linneaus 98 

M. Californica, Nutt • 99 

M. flava. Ait... . 99 

JE. Pavia fiava, Moeiich. 

jE. sarguta, Buckley. 

Pavia lutea, Poir. 

JE. glabra. Willd 99 

u!E. Ohioensis, Michx. 

Parvia glabra, Spach. 

Hippocastanum, Linn. 100 

M. parvi flora, Walt 99 

macrostachya, Michx. 

M. Pavia, Linn 100 

JE. Pavia rubra, Lamk. 

M. rubicunda, Lois,. 100 



(285) 



286 



PRACTICAL POEESTKY. 



carnea, Willd. 

Ail'^^iitus glaiidulosa, Desf 101 

Alder 103 

Black 103 

Green or MoiuiLaiii 104 

Hoary 103 

Obloiig-lcavcd 104 

Red 105 

Sea-side 104 

Smooth 104 

Speckled... 103 

White 104 

Alerze 244 

Aigaroba 190 

Alligator Tree 164 

Alniis, Toiirnefort 103 

A. iiicana, Willd 103 

A. glauca, Michx. 
A. alpina, Bork. 

A. maritiina, Muhl . 104 

A. obloiigifolia, Torr 104 

A. rhombifolia, Nutt 104 

A. rul)ni, Bongard 105 

A. serrnlata, Alton. . , 104 

A. (jlntinosa^ var. acutifoUa, Spach. 
A. hjbrida, Reich. 

A. viridis, DC 104 

A. undulata, Willd. 
Betula crispa, Michx. 
A. fruticosa, Ledb. 

Amelanchier, Medicus . 105 

A. alnifolia, Nutt 106 

Aronia alnifolia, Niitt. 



Amelanchier florida, Lindl . 
A. canadensis, var. alnifolia, Torr. 



and Gray. 

A. Canadensis, Torr. and Gray 1C5 

Mespilus arl>orea^ Michx. 

American cotinus 211 

Amy ris, Linn 106 

A. sylvatica, Jacq 106 

A. Floridana, Nutt. 

Angelica Tree 107 

Annular Budding 39 

Anona glabra, Linn Ill 

Aral i a, Linn 107 

A. species of 107 

A. spinosa. Linn 107 

Araucaria Cookii, Brown 279 

A. Cunninghami, Ait 278 

A. excelsa, Brown 279 

A. imbricata, Pavon 278 

A. Rulei, Mueller 279 

Arbol De Hierro 176 

Arbor Vitse 244 

A. Cliinese 246 

A. Columbia 245 

A. Cutting..., 52 

A. Eastern 248 

A. Giant 245 

A. Siberian 245 

A. Tartarian 246 

Arbutus Tree, Tour 108 

A. Menziesii. Pursh 108 

A. laurifolia, Lindl. 

A. jyrocera, Dougl, 

A. Texana, Buckley. 
Arctostaphylos, Adanson 108 



A. Andersonii, Gray 109 

A. bicolor, Gray 109 

A. glauca, Lindl 109 

A. polifolia, HBK... 109 

A. pumila, Nutt ... 109 

A. pungehs, HBK 109 

A. tomentosa, Dougl 109 

A. TJva-ursi, Sprengel 109 

Ard i si a, S war tz 1 09 

A. Pickeringia, Torr. and Gray.. . 109 
Cyrilla imniculata, Nutt. 
Pickeringia jyaniculata, Nutt. 

Arrow Wood 230 

Ash, American 147 

Black.. 149 

Blue 283 

European 150 

Foreign Species and Varieties. 150 

Golden 150 

Green 149 

Oregon 148 

Red 149 

Remiily, Weeping 151 

The Flowering... 150 

Water 149 

Weeping 150 

Willow-leaved 150 

Asimina, Adanson 110 

A, grandifiora, Dunal 110 

A. i)arviflora, Dunal 110 

A. pygmsea, Dunal Ill 

A. triloba, Dunal 109 

Anona triloba, L, 

Uvaria triloba, Torr. and Gray. 

Aspen, American 188 

Large-toothed 187 

Avicennia, Linn Ill 

A. nirida, Jacq Ill 

A. tomentosa, Meyer. 
A. oblongifolia, Nutt. 

Bald Cypress 249 

Balm of Gilead 186,250 

Balsam Fir.. 250 

Balsam Tree 134 

Bass, Sweet 169 

Bass Wood 225 

Ba s t a r d I r on w o 0 d 231 

Bear Berry 109,208 

Bear Berry, Buckthorn 208 

Beech, American 145 

Antarctic 146 

Crested-leaved 146 

Copper-leaved 146 

Cunningham's 146 

Cut-leaved 146 

European 148 

Fern -leaved 146 

Golden-leaved 146 

Oak-leaved 146 

Weeping 146 

Best Time to Cut Timber 72 

Betula, Tour Ill 



B. alba, L., var. populifolia, Spach 111 
B, acuminata, Ehrh. 
B. cuspidata, Schrad. 
B. populifolia. Ait. 

B. lenta, Linn 112 

B, carpinifolia, Ehrh. 



ISTDEX. 



287 



B. lenia, Regel. 

B. lutea, Michx 112 

B. excelsa, Piirsli. 

B. iiii^ra, Linn , 113 

B. rubra, Michx. 

B. occidentalis, Tlook 113 

B. papyracea, Ait 113 

Big Tree 247 

Bilsted 1G4 

Birch, Blacli 112 

Canoe 112 

Cherry 112 

Cut-leaved 113 

Gray Ill, 112 

Mahogany 112 

Paper 112 

River 113 

Sweet 112 

Weeping 113 

Western 113 

West India 114 

White Ill 

Biota, Don 245 

B, Orlentalis 24() 

B. Tartarica 240 

Bitter Wood 222 

Black Button Wood 164 

Black Gum 1T6 

Black Haw 230 

Black Walnut 159 

Blue Beech 115 

Blue Wood 135 

Bristly or Rose Acacia 215 

Broussonetia papyrilera, Vent 282 

Bois D'Arc 167 

Bourreria Havanensis. Miers 113 

Ehretia Havanensis, Willd. 

B. tomen tosa , va r . Havanensis, Gr i s e b . 

Ehretia tomentosa, Lam. 

Pittonia siniilis, Gates b. 

Ehretia Beurreria, Chapman. 

B. succulenta, Jacq. 

Var. mdula. Gray. 

B. radida, Don. 

B. virgata, Griseb. 

Ehretia radula, Poir. 

Cordia Floridana, Nutt. 

Box Elder 03 

Buckeye, Fetid 99 

Dwarf 99 

Ohio 99 

Red 100 

Sweet 99 

Buds of Trees 23 

Budding and Grafting.. 30 

Budding Knife 41 

Buckthorn, common 209 

Buclvthorn, southern 113 

Buckwheat Tree 134 

Buffalo Berry 221 

Bumelia, Swartz 114 

B. cuneata, Swartz 114 

B. myrsinifcHia, A. DC 
B, parvifolia, A.DC. 
B. angustifolia, Nutt. 
B. reclinata, Torr. 

B. lanuginosa, Pers 114 

B. tomentosa^ A.DC. 



B, oblongifolia, Nutt. 
B.ferruginea, Nutt. 

B. lycioides, Gsertn 114 

B. tenax, Willd 113 

Bursera, Jacquin *'* 1^4 

B. gumniifera, Jacq \ \\ 114 

Butternut '" 159 

Button Tree \ ' \ 

Button wood ......... 184 

Buttonwood, California. ..'.'.'.'* 1 .". 185 

Calico-bush ...*.'.'. 163 

California Cedar * \ \\\ 2^3 

California Horse Chestnut 99 

California Laurel 228 

California Lilac . . . \ 129 

Cal i forn i a Nu Mn eg '.*//. 234 

California Olive 2''^8 

Caj«P»t V.V. 228 

Calyptranthes, Swariz 114 

C. Chytracnlia, Swartz 114 

Eugenia pallens, Brown. 

Myrtus chytranda, Swartz. 

Canoe Wood jcO 

Carolina Gum Tree ". ' ' . 175 

Carpinus, Linn * 114 

C. American, Michx. * 115 

Carya, Nutt .'. * * 115 

C. alba, Nutt 117 

C. amara, Nutt us 

Juglans, amara, Michx. 

Juglans angustifolia, Lam. 
C. aquatica, Nutt 119 

Juglans aquatica, Michx. 
C. myristicaeiormis, Nutt 119 

juglans myristicoRformis, Miclix. 
C. porcina, Nutt 

Juglans glabra, Wang. 

Juglans porcina, Michx. 

Juglans obcordala, Willd. 

C. glabra, Torr. and Gray. 

C. olivseforniis, Nutt Us 

C. sulcata, Nutl , 117 

C. tomentosa, Nutt *.V. 117 

Castanea, Tour 121 

C. American, Michx 123 

C. vesca. Gasrtn . 

Fagus Castanea., L. 

C. Japonica 125 

C. pumila, Michx **'. 124 

Fagus pumila,\j. 
0. vesca 123 

Castanea vulgaris^ Lani. 

Castanopsis, Spach 121 

C. chrysophylla, A.DC 121 

Castanea chrysophylla. Hook. 

C. sempervirens, Kellogg. 

Catalpa, Scopoli 1 125 

C. bignonioides, Walt 125 

Bignonia Catalpa, L. 

C. cordifolia. Jeaume. 

C. syrin gcefolia Sims. 

C. sj)eciosa, Wfirder. 

C. Bungei, C. A. Mey 128 

C. common 125 

C. Golden \\ 128 

C. Japan 128 

C. Kaempferi, DC 128 

C. Japonica. 



288 PRACTICAL 



C. ovata, Geo. Don. 

C. Speciosa, Warder... 125 

Cat's-CIaw 183 

Ceanothus, Linn 128 

C. spinosus, Niitt , 129 

C. tliyrgiflorns, Eschscholtz 124 

Cedar, Deodar 280 

Japan 2S2 

Lebanon 280 

Mount Atlas 279 

Red 289 

White 242 

Cedrela sinensis, A. Juss 282 

C. Atlantica, Manetti 279 

C. Deodora, Loud 280 

C. Li ban i, Bonr 280 

Celtis, Tour 129 

C. brevipes, Watson 129 

C. Mississippiensis, Bosc. . ... 129 



C. occidentalism var. tenmfoUa, Pers. 
C. Icevigata, Willd. 
C, occidentalism var. integrifolia^ 

Nutt. 
C. integrifoUa, Nutt. 
C. longifoUa, Nutt. 

C. occidentalis. Linn .•. . 129 

C. crassifolia^ Lam. 
C. occidentalism var. crassifoUa, Gray. 



C. Tala, Gillies, var. pallida, 'Plancli 131 

C. {Momi-sia) pallida, Torr. 

Cercidiphyllum Japonicum 282 

Cercis, Linn 131 

C. Canadensis, Linn 131 

C. Japonica, Siebold 132 

C. Cliinensis, Bunge. 
C. occidentalis, Torr 131 

C. Calif or nicumm Torr. 

C. siliquastrum, Linn 131 

Cercocarpus, HBK 283 

C. ledifolius, Nutt 283 

C. purvitblius, Nutt 283 

Chanisecyparis, Spacli 241 

C. Lawsoniana, Pari 241 

Cupressus Lawsoniana, Murr. 

Ciqyressus Nutkaensls, Torr. 

Cupremis fragrans, Kellogo:. 

Cupressus attenuata, Gordon. 
C. Nutkaensis, Lam 211 

T/mya excelsa, Bonir. 

Cupressus Nutkaensis, Lamb. 

Cupressus Americana^ Trautv. 

C. excelsa, Fisch. 

Thuyopsis borealis, Hort. 

Tfiuyopsis 2'chugatskoy, Hort. 
C. tbuyoides, Lam 242 

Thuya sphoeroidaliSm Rich. 

C. torulosa, Don 243 

Characteristics of Trees, The 19 

Cherry. Anderson's 192 

California 193 

Dwarf or Sand 195 

Holly-leaved 192 

Laurel 192 

Wild, Black 195 

Wild, Red 192 

Chestnut, American 123 

California 121 

Chinquapin 124 



TORESTRY. 



Cut-leaved 125 

Dwarf...., 124 

European 121 

Golden 121 

Japan 125 

Numbo 123 

Chilopsis saligna, Don • 132 

C. linearis, DC. 
Bignonia linearis, Cav. 
C. glutinosa, Eii^-elm. 

China Tree... 172 

Chinquapin.. 124 

Chionanthus Virginica, Linn 132 

C. var. angustifolia 133 

Cholve Berry 182 

Chrysophyllura micropliyllum, DC. 133 

C. olivifornie. Lam 133 

C. monopyrenumm Swartz. 

Cladrastis tinctoria, Raf 133 

Virgilia lutea. Michx. 
C. Amurensis, B'enth. and Hook... 134 
Maaclcia amurensis, Rupr. 

Clammy Locust...... 215 

Cliftonia ligustrina, Banks 134 

Mylocarium ligustrinum, Willd . 

Clusia flava. Linn 134 

Coccoloba, Jacq 135 

C. Floridana, Meisner 135 

C. parvifolia, Nutt. 

C. unifera, Jacq 135 

Coffee Tree, Kentucky 354 

Condalia, Cavan 135 

C. obovata, Hook 135 

Coniferse 237 

Cone-bearing Trees 237 

Coniferse from Cuttings .. 51 

Conocarpus, Linn 135 

C. erecta, Jacqu 135 

Coral Sumach 214 

Cordia, Linn— Plumier 136 

C. Boissieri, DO 136 

C. Sebestena, L 136 

C. speciosa, Willd. 

Cornus, Tour 136 

C. florida. Linn 136 

C. Nuttallii, Audubon 136 

Cotton Gum 176 

Cottonwood 187 

Crab Apple, American 182 

Narrow-leaved 181 

Oregon 182 

Crab Wood 220 

Cranberry Tree 230 

Crataegus, Linn 138 

C. aestivalis, Torr. & Gray 138 

C. apiifolia, Michx 139 

C. arborescens, Elliott 139 

C. berberifolia. Torr. & Gray 139 

C. coccinea. Linn 139 

C. cordata. Ait 139 

C. Crus-galli 139 

C. Douglasii, Lindl 139 

C. sanguinea, var. Douglasii, 

Torr. & Gray 139 

C. flava. Ait 139 

C. parviflora, Ait 140 

C. Pyracantha 141 

C. rivularis, Nutt 140 



IKDEX. 



289 



C, spathulata, Michx 140 

C. microcai'pa, Lindl. 

Cc subvillosa, Schrad 140 

C. coccinea, var. mollis, Torr. & 



Gray. 

C. tomentosa, var. mollis, Gray, 

C. mollis, Scheele. 

O. tomentosa, L 140 

Cryptomeria Japonica, Don 280 

Cucumber Tree 168 

Cunninghami Sinensis, R. Brown. 281 

Cupressus, Tour 240 

C. Goveniana, Gordon 240 

C. Macnabiana, Muir 240 

0. macrocarpa, Hartw 240 

C. lamberiiana, Gord. 

C, Eartwegii, Carrie re. 

Custard Apple 110 

Cutting of Cypress 53 

Cypress, Bald 248 

C Calit'ornia 240 

C. deciduous 249 

C. Lawson's 241 

C.McNab's 240 

C. Monterey 240 

C. Nootka Sound . 241 

C. Twisted-branched 242 

C. Weeping 249 

Cyrilla, Linn... 141 

C. racemiflora, Walt 141 

C. GaroUniana, Richard. 

Dacridium 236 

Dahoon Holly 157 

Deciduous Cypress 249 

Deciduous Trees from Cuttings... 54 

Desert Willow 132 

Devil Wood 176 

Diospyrus, Linn 142 

D. Tcxana, Scheele 142 

D. Virginiana, L 142 

Dogwood, Flowering 137 

D. Nuttairs 137 

D. Weeping 137 

D. Western Species 137 

Dipholis salicifolia, A. DC 143 

Achras salicifolia, L. 
Bumelia salicifolia, Swartz. 
Drypetes, Vahl 14:? 

D. crocea, Poit 143 

Schceferia lateriflora^ Sw. 

Ehretia,'Linn. 143 

E. ellipt-ica, DC 144 

Elder Tree . 218 

E. Black-berried 219 

E. European 219 

Eim, American 227 

E. Dutch Cork-bark 228 

E. Exeter 229 

E. English 228 

E. English Cork-bark 228 

E. Opaque-leaved 227 

E. Red 227 

E. Slippery ... 227 

E. Scotch 228 

E. Small-leaved 227 

E. Weeping 228 

E. Wych 228 

Encino 147 



Establishing New Forests 80 

Eucalyptus globulus 282 

Eugenia, Micheli 144 

E. Box-leaved 144 

E. buxifclia, Willd 144 

Myrtus huxifolia, Swartz. 
i)/. aocillaris. Poire t. 

E. dichotoma, DC 144 

Myrtus dichotoma, Vahl. 



Eugenia fragrans, Willd. 



E. montana, Aubl. 

E. divaricata, Lam. 

E. procera, Poir 144 

Myrtus }wocera^ Swartz. 
E. Small-leaved 144 

E. Tall 144 

Evergreens from the Forests 64 

Fagus, Tonr 144 

F. antarctica, Forst 146 

F. betuloides, Mirb 146 

F. Cunninghami, Hook 146 

F. ferruginea, Ait 145 

Fagus sylvestris, Michx. 

F. Sylvatica Americana, Loud. 
F. alba, Rafinesque. 

F. sylvatica, Linn 145 

CcLstanea Fagus, Scop. 

False Acacia 215 

Box 220 

Elm 129 

Fever Tree 282 

Ficus, Tour 146 

F. aurea, Nutt 146 

F. brevifolia, Nutt 146 

F. pedunculata, Ait 147 

Fig, Cherry 147 

F. Short-leaved 146 

F. Small-fruited 146 

Fir, Balsam 250 

Black Balsam 250 

Cephalonian 252 

Cicilian Silver 252 

European Silver 253 

Eraser's Balsam 251 

Great Silver 251 

Leafy-bracted Silver 250 

Noble Silver 252 

Nordmanu's 253 

Pinsapo 253 

Upright Indian 253 

Red 251 

Siberian Silver 253 

Webb's Purple-coned 253 

White 250 

Florida Myrtle 174 

Forest Trees, Description of 87 

Forests and Insects 18 

Forests and Streams.. 15 

Forked Calyptranthes 114 

Fraxinus, Tour 147 

F. Americana. Lim 147 

F. acuminata. Lam. 
F. alba. Marsh. 
F. juglandifolia. Lam. 
F. ep'iptera, Michx. 
F. Curtissii, Vasey. 

F. anomala, Torr 148 

F. cuspidata, Torr 148 



290 PEACTICAL 

F. dipetala, Hook. & Arn 148 

Ornus dipetala, Nutt. 

F. Greo:gii. Gra}^ 148 

F. Oregona, ^wti 148 

F. grandifolia, Benth. 
F. imbescens, var., Hook. 

F. pistaciaefolia, Torr 143 

F. velutina, Torr. 
F. coriacea, Watson. 

F. platycarpa, Micbx 149 

F. ^Carolimana, Lam. 
F. Americana, Marsh. 
F. iKillida, Bosc. 
F. imudfiora, Xutt. 
F. ti iptera. Nutt. 



F. pubescens. Lam... 149 

F. Penmylvanica, Marsh. 
F. nigi^a, DuRoi. 
F. tODientosa, Michx. 
F. quadrangulata. Michx 2S3 



F. tetagona. Gels. 

F. sambucifolia. Lam 149 

F. viridis, Michx 149 

F. concolor, Miihl. 



F. juglandifolia, Willd. 
F. Caroliniana, Willd. 
F. eicpansa, Willd. 
F. Berlandienana, DC. 



Fringe Tree, White 132 

Genip Tree 157 

Georgia Bark 180 

Ginkgo 236 

Gleditschia. Linii 152 

G. Carpica, Desf 153 

G. monosperma, Nutt 153 

G. Sinensis, Lamk 153 

G. triacauthos. L 152 

G. var. Bujoti pendula 152 

G. var. inermis 152 

Glvptostrobus. Endl 249 

G.'heterophvllns, Endl 249 

G. pendulu?'. Endl 249 

Gordonia. Ellis 153 

G. Lasianthus. L 153 

G. pubescens, L"Her 153 

Great Laurel '^04 

Great Tree of California 24T 

Grafting Cleft 45 

G. Conifers 48 

G. Crown - 46 

G. Deciduous Trees 42 

G.Pine 49 

G. Splice or Tongue 47 

G. Terminal 50 

G. Side or Triangular 47 

G. Wax 43 

Gnaicum, Plumier 154 

G. sanctum, L 154 

Guilder Rose 231 

Gymnocladus, Lam . 1.54 

G. Canadensis, Lam 154 

Hackberry 129 

Hackmatac 259 

Halesia, Ellis 155 

H. diptera, Linn 155 

H. Four-winged 155 

H. parviflora, Michx 155 

H. tetraptera. L 155 



FORESTRY. 



H. Small-flowered 155 

H. Two- winged 155 

Hemlock, California 255 

Canada 25 1 

Patton's 255 

Hercules' Club 107 



Heteromeles arbutifolia. Roemer.. 156 
Aroiiia arbuiifoUa. Nutt. 
Cratcegus aihutifolia. Poir. 
Photinia arbutifolia, Lindl. 
Mespilus arbut'folia, Link. 
Fhodnia saiielfolia, Presl. 
H. Fremontid)ia. Dcsne. 



Hickory. Bitter Nut 118 

Brown lis 

Hales, Paper shell 119 

Nutmeg 119 

Mocker Nut 117 

Pecan Nut 118 

Pig Nut 118 

Shag-bark 117 

Shell-bark 117 

Swamp 118 

Thick Shell-bark 117 

Western Shell-bark 117 

White-heart 117 

Hippomane Mancinella. . . . « 156 

Hog-plum 232 

HoUv. American 157 

l)ahoon 157 

European 1.57 

Yaupon 158 

Honey Berry 156 

Locust 152 

Mesquit 190 

Hop-hornbeam. American 177 

Hornbeam, American 115 

European 177 

Horse-chestnut, Cut-leaved 100 

Double White 100 

European. ICO 

Memminger s 100 

Horse Sugar 224 

Hypelate paniculata, Cambess 57 

Melicoccd paniculata, J uss. 

H. trifoliata, Swartz 157 

Idesia. polycarpa, Maxim., 282 

Bex, Linn . 157 

L Cassine, Linn 158 

L coriacea, Ell 158 

I. Dahoon, Nutt 157 

7. ligustrina, Ell. 
1. Idi(r{folia, Nutt. 
1. myriifolia, Walt. 

I. glabra, Gray 158 

I. opaca. Ait 157 

I. verticillata. Gray 158 

Influence of Forests on Climate... 9 

Ink-berry 158 

Implements L'sed in Pruning 71 

Importance of a Supply of Wood. 75 

Inga Unguis, Cati 183 

Iron Wood 115, 122, 176, 177 

Jamaica Dogwood 182 

Judas Tree 131 

California 131 

European . . 131 

Japan 132 



IKDEX. 



291 



Juglans, Linn 159 

J. Calif ornica, Watson 159 

J. rupestris, var. major, Torr. 
J. cinerea, L 159 

J. oUonga, Mill. 

J. cathartlca, Michx. 

J. nio:ra, L.. 159 

J. regia. Linn 160 

J. rupestris, Engelm 160 

Jujube 23-2 

June Berry i^^ 

Juniper 23S 

J. California 239 

J. Common "36 

J. Western 239 

Juniperus, Linn — 238 

J. Californica, Carriere 238 

J. ietragona, var. osteosperma. 
Ton-. 

J. Cerwsiamis, Kellogg. 

J. occidentalis, Pari. 

Var. Utahensis, Engelm. 

J. occidentalis, Watson. 

J. andina. Nutt. 
J. communis, Linn 239 

J. depressa, Pursh. 

J. Canadensis, Ladd. 
J. occidentalis, Hook 239 

J. excelsa, Pursh. 

Var. conjungens, Engelm. 

Var. monosperma, Engelm. 
J. pachyphloea, Torr.. 239 

J. plochyderma, Torr. 

J. Virginiana, Linn 239 

Kalmia, Linn 163 

K. angustifolia. Linn 163 

K. Broad-leaved, 163 

K. cuneata, Michx 163 

K. glauca, Ait 163 

K. JrTairj^-leaved 163 

K. hirsuta, Walt 163 

K. lati folia. Linn 163 

K. Narrow-leaved 163 

Kentucky Coffee Tree 154 

KiakaElm 184 

Kinnikiulck 109 

Ladder, A Handy 71 

Laguncularia racemosa, GjBrta 164 

Larch, American ^59 

L. Dahurian 260 

L. Golden 261 

L. Japan 261 

L. Sikkim 261 

Larix, Tour 259 

L. Americana, Michx 259 

Plniis pendula. Ait. 
L. pendula, Salisb. 

L. macrocarpa, Forbes. 

L. intermedia, Lodd. 

P'lnus microcarpa. Lamb. 

L. Dahnrica, Turz 260 

L. Griffithiana, Hook. . . . 261 

L. Kfcmpferi. Gordon 261 

L. Leptolepsis. Gordon 261 

L. Lyallii, Pari 239 

Pinus Lycdlii, Pari. 

L. occidentalis, Nutt 260 

L. AmeHcana, var. brevifolia, Car. 



Pinus Nuttallii, Pari. 

Lath-covered Frame 59 

Laurel, American 163 

Carolina 163 

Pale 163 

Sheep 163 

Layers , 54 

Layer in a Pot 5T 

La'yerins; a Branch 56 

Lever-wood ITT 

Libocedrus, Endl 243 

L. decurrens, Torr 243 

Thuya Craigiana, Balfour. 
Thuya gigantea, Carriere. 
Heyderia decurrens, Koch. 

L. tetragona, Endl 244 

Lignum Vitae 154 

Lilac, California 129 

Linden Tree 225 

Liquidambar Styraciflua, Linn 164 

L. imberhe, Ait 166 

L. Longworthii, Thurber 165 

L. orien talis, Mill 166 

Piatanus orientalis, Pocke. 

Liriodendron Tulipifera, Linn 166 

Loblolly Bay 153 

Locust 214 

Tree 215 

Carpian Honey 153 

Chinese Honey 153 

Honey 152 

Water 153 

Logwood 155 

Lombardy Poplar 189 

Madura aurantiaca, Nutt 16T 

Madeira Wood. 15T 

Madrono 108 

Maiiuolia, Linn 16T 

M. acuininati, Linn 168 

M. coidata, lAliclix 168 

M. Fraseri, Walt 1C8 

M. arrih.data. Lam. 

M. pvrlmidata, Bartram. 

M. glauca. L 169 

M. grandiflora, L 16 

M. macrophylla, Michx 169 

M. Umbrella, Lam 170 

M. tripetala, L. 

M. Tlioinpsoniana 170 

Magnolia, Chineije Species" and 

Varieties 170 

M. atropurpuiea. . 170 

M. conspicua 170 

M. hypoleuca ITl 

M. Kobus ITl 

M. Lennei ITl 

M. Norbertinna ITl 

M. parvi flora ITl 

M. purpurea ITl 

M. speciosa ITl 

M. Soulangeana ITl 

M. stellata ITl 

M. stricta ITl 

M. superba : ITl 

Magnolia, Chinese White ITO 

^Chinese Superb ITO 

Ear-leaved 168 



292 PRACTICAL 

Great Chinese 171 

Great-leaved 169 

Hall's Japan 171 

Japan Purple 171 

Larf,'e-flowerecl 169 

Lenne's Hybrid 171 

Norbert's 171 

Showy 171 

Small-flowered 171 

Soulange's Hybrid 171 

Star 171 

Swamp , 169 

Thompson's 170 

Mahogany Tree 2M 

Maiden Hair Tree 236 

Mana2:ement of Forests 79 

Manchineel 156 

Mangrove. 209 

Manzanita 108 

Manzanita, California 109 

Maple 88 

Ash- leaved 93 

Black 89 

California 9-2 

Crisp-leaved 90 

Cut-leaved Norway 96 

Eagle' s-claw 98 

English Field 95 

European 95 

Foreign Species of 95 

Ginnala 97 

Golden-leaved 95 

Hard 89 

Japan 97 

Laree-leaved 92 

Lobel's 97 

Xorberg's 96 

Montpelier 97 

Mountain 92 

Mountain Sugar 93 

Negundo 93 

Norway 96 

Purple-leaved 95 

Red 91 

Rock 89 

Round-leaved 92 

Schwerdler's Norway 95 

Silver 89 

Silver Striped 95 

Smooth-leaved Mountain 93 

Striped-bark 92 

Sugar 89 

Swamp 91 

Tartarian 97 

Three-colored leaved 95 

Three-lobed 97 

Velvet-leaved 95 

Vine 92 

Wagner's cut-leaved 90 

VVeir's cut-leaved; 90 

White 89 

Melia, Linn 171 

M. Azediach, Cav 172 

Mesquit 189 

Mesqait Tree 191 

Mimusopp, Linn 172 

M. Sieberi, A. DC 172 

M. dissect a, Griseb. 



FORESTRY. 

Acras Zapotilla, var. imrvijiora^ 



Nnlt 

Mock Orange 192 

Moose Wood 92 

Morns, Tour 172 

M. alba, Linn 173 

M. niicrophylla, Buckley 173 

M. rubra, L 172 

AL Canadensis, Lam. 

Mountain Ash, Araei lean ISl 

Mountain Ash, Western 182 

Mou/itain Mahogany 28 

Mountain Manchineel 158 

Movement of Sap in Trees 52 

Mull)erry, Downing's 173 

Red 172 

Russian 173 

Tartarian , 173 

WestLidian...,., 173 

White 173 

Myrica, Linn 174 

M. Californica, Cliam 174 

Myrsine, Linn! 174 



M. Rapaiiea, Rcem. and Schult 174 

J/. Jioribunda^ Grisel). 
31. Floridana, A. DC. 
Eapanea Gu.yanensis^ Aubl . 
Semara jloribunda^ Willd. 



Nase berry 172 

Negundo aceroides, Moench 93 

N. Californicnm, Torr. and Gray.. 94 

Nettle Tree... 129 

Nettle Tree, Sonthern ... 129 

New Forests, Establishing of 80 

Northern Prickly Ash 232 

Nuttallia cerasiformis, Torr. and 

Gray 174 

Nyssa, Linn 175 

N. capitata, Walt 172 

N, candicans, Michx. 

N. Caroliniana, Poir 175 

K. aquatica. 

N. mnltiflora, Wang 175 

N. aquatica, L. 
N. bijlora, Miciix. 

N. sylvatica, Marsh 176 

N. villosa. Michx. 

N. muWfiom, var. sylvatica^ Wat- 
son. 

N. uniflora, Wan'j 176 

N. aquatica, L. 

N. tomentosa, Michx. 

aY. grandidentata, Michx 

Oak, Barren 204 

Bartram 201 

Bear 202 

Black 205 

Blackjack 204 

Black Scrul) 202 

Blue 200 

Brewer's 198 

Burr 203 

California Cliestnut 203 

California Live 199 

Cliinquapin 204 

Cut-leaved 207 

Daimio 207 

Dwarf Evergreen 201 



IKDEX. 



293 



Ever-reen, White 201 

Georuica 201 

Go] den- leaved 207 

Hollv-leaved.... 197 

Hybrids 207 

Kelloo<r's 202 

Laurel-leaved 202 

Live 206 

Lobed-leaved 203 

Moi«sy-cui) 203 

Mottled-leaved 207 

Moiunaiu White „ 200 

Ornamental 207 

Over-cup 203 

Palmer's 204 

Post 203, 204 

Quercilron - 204 

lied 205 

Rocky Mountain Scrub 200 

Scarlet 199 

Scrub 199 

Shingle 202 

Small-leaved 200 

Spanish 201 

Swamp 204 

Swamp Chestnut 204 

Swamp, White 198 

Turkey 199,207 

Water..... 198 

Western 201 

White 197 

Willow 204 

Yellow-barked 204 

Yellow Chestnut 504 

0<?eechee Lime 175 

Olea, Linn 176 

Olneya Tesota, Gray 176 

Osage Orange 167 

Osier 215 

Osmanthus Amcricanus, Benth. and 

Hook 176 

Olea Americana, L. 

Oso Berry 174 

Ostrva, Micheli 177 

O. Virginicn, Willd 177 

Carpiinis Ostrya, L. 
Carpinvs Virginiana, Lam. 
O. Americana, Michx. 
0. vulgaris, Watson. 
Carpinus irijiora, Moench. 

Oxydendrum arboreum, DC 179 

Andromeda arborea, L. 

Palo verde 180 

Papaw 110 

Dwarf Ill 

Large-flowered 110 

Small -flowered 110 

Parkinsonin, Linn 179 

P. aculeata, Linn 179 

P. florida, Watson 179 

Cercidium fioridum, Benth. 

P. macrophylla, Torr 179 

P. Torreyana, Watson 179 

Cercidium jioridum, Torr. 

Paulownia, Siebold 180 

P. imperialis, Siebold 180 

Bignonia tomentosa, Thunb. 
Pep peri dge 175 



Persca, Gsertn 180 

P. Carolinensis, Nees 180 

Laurus Borbcnica, L. 

Laurus Carolinensis, Catesb. 

P. Borbonica, Spr. 
P. Catesbyana, Michx.. 180 

Laurus Catesbyana, Michx. 

Persimmon, common 142 

Persimmon, Mexican 142 

Phellodendron amurense, Rupr. ... 283 
Picea alba, Michx 256 

Pinus alba. Ait. 

Abies alba, Michx. 
P. Engelmanni, Parry 256 

Abies nigra. En gel m. 

Abies Engelmanni, Parry. 

Pinus commutata. Pari. 

P. excelsa. DC 257 

P. firma, Gord 258 

P. nigra, Poiret . 256 

Pinus nigra. Ait. 

Abies nigra, Michx. 

Pinus rubra. Lamb. 

Abies mibra, Poir. 

Abies nigra, Michx. 

P. rubra. Link. 

P. orientalis, Poiret 258 

P. polita, Sieb. and Zucc 258 

P. pungens, Engelm 257 

Abies Menziesii of Colorado botan- 
ists. 

P. Sitchensis, Bongard 257 

Pinus Sitchensis, Bong. 
Pinus Menziesii, Dougl. 
Abies Menziesii, Lindl. 

Pigeon Plum 135 

Pinckneya pubens, Michx 180 

Pine. Austrian 274 

Bhotan 276 

Cat-tail 263 

Chihuahua 264 

Chili 278 

Corsican 276 

Coulter's 265 

Elliott's 266 

Fox-tail 263 

Frankincense 273 

Fremont's 268 

Georgia 263 

Gray: 254 

Great Prickly-coned 272 

Heavy Wooded 270 

Hickory 263 

Hooked-cone 265 

Japan 275 

Jersey 267 

Lambert's 268 

Lance-leavcd 281 

Loblolly 273 

Long-leaved 263 

Mandshurian 275 

Mas son's 276 

Mexican White 275 

Monterey 267 

Moreton Bay 278 

Mountain 269 

Mugho 276 

Norfolk Island 279 



394 PRACTICAL 



Norway 271 

Nnt 266,268 

Old Field 2T3 

Parry's 269 

Pinon 266 

Pitch 271 

Pond 2T1 

Pyreniau 277 

EedPine 271 

Sabine's 272 

Scotch 277 

Scrub 264, 267 

Short-leaved 268 

Southern Yellow .. 263 

Spruce 267 

Sugar 268 

Swiss Stone ... 275 

Table Mountain 270 

Tuberculated-coned 274 

Twisted Branched 264 

Umbrella 277 

Western White 266 

Weymouth 273 

White 273 

Yellow 263,268.270 

Pinus, Tour 26:2 

P. Arizonica, Engelni 263 

P. australis, Michx 263 

P. jmlustris, Mill. 

Var. excelsa, Loud. 

P. palustris excelsa, Booth. 

P. Austriaca, Hoess. 274 

P. nigt'a^ Link. 
Laricio A ustriaca^ Endl. 

P. Ayacahuite 275 

P. Balfouriana, Jeffrey 263 

Var. anstata, Engelm. 
P. aristata, Engelm. 

P. Banksiana, Lamb 264 

P. Hudsonica, Poir. 
P. rupestrls, Michx. 

P. cembra, Linn 275 

Yar. Mandshuria, Regel. 

P. Chihuahuana, Engelm 264 

P. contorta, Dougl 264 

P. i?wps, Bong. 
P. Bolanderi, Pari. 
Var. Mu7Tayana, Engelm. 
P. contorta, Newberry. 
P. imps, Benth. 



P. contorta, var. latifolia, Engelm. 



Murray ana, Murr. 
P. Coulteri, Don 265 

P. macrocarpa, Lindl. 
P. densiflora, Siebold 275 

P. Japonica, Antoine. 

P. Plnea, Gordon. 
P. cdulis, Engelm 266 

P. cembroides, Gordon. 

P. EUiottii, Engelm... 266 

P. excelsa, Wall 276 

Strobus excelsa, Gordon. 
P. flexilis, James 260 

Var. albicaulis, Engelm. 

P. cembroides, Newberry. 

P. albicaulis, Engelm. 

P. Shasta, Carrie re. 
P. glabra, Walt 267 



FORESTRY. 



P. inops, Ait 267 

P. insignis. Dongl 267 

P. Calif or nica, Lois. 
P. adunca, Bosc. 
P. radiata, Don. 
P. tuberculata, Don. 

P. Lainl)ertiana, Doug) 268 

P. Strobus Lambertiana, Gord. 

P. L:\ricio, Pol ret 276 

P. Massoniaiia, Siel) 276 

P. ST/lvestris, Thnnberg. 
P. rubra, Sieboid. 
P. Pinaster. Loud, 

P. initis, Michx 268 

P. variabilis, Piirsh. 
P. moiiophylla, Torr. and Frem. ... 268 
P. Fremontiana, Eiidl. 

P. monticola, Dougl 269 

P. Strobus Monticola, Loud. 
P. Mugho, Bauhin 276 



P^MugJms, Loud. 
P. Sylvestris, Mugho Bauhin. 



Var. rostrata, Antoine. 
Var. Totundata, Link. 

P. muricata, Don 269 

P. Murray ana, Balfoui*. 
P. Edgariana, Hartw. 

P. Parryana, Engelm 269 

P. Llaveana, Torr. 

P. Ponderosa, Dougl 270 

P. Benthamiana, Hartw. 
P. Beardsleyi, Murr. 
P. Craig ana, Murr. 
Var. scopulorum, Engelm. 
Var. Jeffrei/i, Engelm. 

P. pungens, Michx 270 

P. pyrenaica, Lc Pey. 277 

P. Hispanica, Cook. 

P. penicellus, Le Pey. 

P. Laricio Pyrenaica, Loud . 

P. re-inosa, Ait.. 271 

P. rubra. Michx. 

P. rigida, Mill.. 271 

Var. Serotina, Michx. 

P. S-ibiniana, Dougl 272 

P. Strobus, Linn 273 

P. sylvestris, Linn 277 

P. Tseda, Linn 273 

P. tuberculata, D. Don 274 

P. Calif ornica, Hartw. 

Pirns 181 

P. Americana, DC 181 

Sorbus Aviericana, Marsh. 

P. ansfustifolia, Ait 181 

Malus angustifoUa, Michx. 

P. arbuti folia. Linn 182 

Aronia arbutifolia. Ell. 

P. coronaria, L 182 

Malus coronaria. Mill. 

P. rivularis, Dougl 182 

Mains rivularis, Dcsne. 
Pirus diversifolia, Bongard. 



P. sambuciiolia, Cham, and Schlect 182 
Sorbus sambucifolia, Rcem. 



Piscidia Erythrina, Linn 182 

Pistacia, Will. 183 

P. Mexicana, HBK ... 183 

P. Nut 183 



INDEX. 



295 



Pithecolobium, Martin 183 

P. Ungnis-Cati, Benth 183 

Inga Unguis- Cati, Wilkl. 
P. Guadalupense^ Nutt. 

Plane Tree, American 185 

Plane Tree, Oriental ,. 185 

Planera aquatica, Gmel 183 

P. Gmelini, L. C. Rich. 
P. ulmifolia, Miclix. 
Anonymos aquaiica^ Walt. 

Planer Tree 183 

Planer Tree, Caucasian 184 

Plantanus, Tour 184 

P. acerfolia... 185 

P. asplenifolia 185 

P. liriodenclri folia 185 

P. Orientalis, Linn 185 

P. occidentalis, L 184 

P. qiiinquelobata 185 

P. racemosa, Nntt 185 

P. Wriglitii, Watson 185 

Plum 192 

Beacli 193 

California 195 

Chickasaw 192 

Evergreen 193 

Wild 192 

Podocarpus Japonica 236 

Podocarpus, South American. ... .. 236 

Poison Dogwood 211 

Ivy 211 

Oak 210,211 

Sumach 211 

Wood 220 

Poplar, Balsam 186 

Black 189 

Carolina 187 

Crisp-leaved or curled-leaved. . 189 

Downy-leaved , 187 

Lombardy 189 

Silver 189 

Weeping 189 

Willow-leaved 186 

Populus, Tour 185 

P. alba, Linn 189 

P. angusti folia, James 186 

P. Canadensis^ var. angustifoUa, 

Wcsmael. 
P. balsamifera, var. angustifolia, 
Watson, 

P. balsamifera. Linn 186 

V^ar. candicans^ Gray, 

P. dilatata, Tour 189 

P. fastigiata, Desf. 189 

P. nigra, Catpsb. 

P. macro j)hylla^ Lindl. 

P. Ontariensis, Desf. 

P. suaveoleiis^ Fischer. 
P. Freraontii, Watson 187 

P. monilifera, Newberry. 

P. monilifera. 

Var. Wis'lizeni, Watson. 

P. grandidentata, Michx 187 

P. heterophylla, Linn 187 

P. argentea, Michx. 

P. heteropliylla, var. argentea, Wcs- 
mael. 

P. cordifdia^ Burgsd. 



P. monilifera, Ait 187 

P. angidata. Ait. 

P. angidata, Michx. 

P. Canadensis, Desf. 

P. Marylandica, Bosc. 

P. IcEvigaia, Willd. 

P. glandulosa, Moench. 

P. nigra, Linn 189 

P. tremuloides. Michx 188 

P. grcEca, ^Villd. 

P. henzoifera^ Tausch. 

P. Suaveolens, Kegel 189 

P. trichocarpa, Torr. and Gray 18S 

P. balsamifera, var. Hook. 

P. balsamifera, var. Watson. 
Porliera angustifolia. Gray 284 

Giiiacum aiiguslifoliiim, Engelm. 

Preparins^ a Seed-bed 28 

Preservation of Forests 78 

Prickly Ash 231 

Pride of India 172 

Propagation by Layering 55 

Prosopis, Linn 189 

P. julitlora, DC 190 

Algarobia glandiilosa^ Torr. & Gray. 

P. pnbescens, Benth 190 

* Strombocarpa jVAbescens, Gray. 

Pruning Evergreens 70 

Pruning of Forest Trees 67 

Prunus Americana, Marshall 192 

P. Anderson!, Gray 192 

P. Caroliniana, Ait 192 

Cerasiis Caroliniana^ Michx. 
P. Chicasa, Michx 192 

Ce?'asus Chicasa^ Sering. 

P. demissa, Walpers 192 

P. emarginata, Walpers 193 

Var. mollis. Brewer. 

P. mollis, Walpers. 

Cerasus mollis, Dougl. 

C. glandulosiis, Kellogg. 
P. fasciculata. Gray 193 

Emiileclodadas faciculatus^ Torr. 
P. illicifolia, Walpers 193 

Cerasus ilUcifolius, Nutt. 
P. maritima, Wangr 193 

P. littorallis, Bigelow. 

P.pygmcea, Willd. 
P. Pen n sylvan ica 194 

Cerasus borealis, Michx. 

Cerasus Pennsylvanica^ Soring. 
P. pumila, Linn , .. 195 

Cerasus pumila, Michx. 

C. glauca, Moench. 
P. serolina, Ehr , 195 

Cerasus Virginian a, Michx. 

Cerasus serotina, Loisel. 

P. Virginiana, Mill. 

P. car'lUagenea, Lehm. 

P. subcordata, Benth 195 

P. umbellata, Elliott 195 

Pseudotsuga Donglasii, Carrierc... 254, 

P. Douglasii, Sabine. 

Abies bovglasii, Dougl. 

Tsuga Douglasii, Carrierc. 

Var. macrocarpa, Engelm. 

Abies macrocarpa^ Vasey. 



296 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Ptelea trifoliata, Linn 284 

Pterocarya fraxinifolia, Spach 283 

Jiiglansfraxin ? folia, Lamk. 
J. iiterocarva, ^S'illcl. 

P. stcnoptera, Cas. DC 283 

P. laevigata^ Ilort. 

Quaking Asp 188 

Quassia 222 

Qnercus, Linn 197 

Q. a<ii-i folia, Nee 197 



Q. oxyadenia, Torr. 
\. alba, J 



Q. alba, Linn. 197 

Q. aquatica, Catesl^y 198 

Q. maritima, Willd. 

Q. bicolor, Willd 198 

Q. Prinus, var. tomentosa. Michx. 
0. Prinus^ var. discolor^ Michx. 

Michauxii, Nutt. 
A ar. Michauxii, Engelm. 
Q. Prinus iKilustris, Michx. 
O. Michauxii, Nutt. 
Q. Prinus plaiitanoides, Lamk. 

Q. Brewcri. Engelm 198 

Q. hbata, Engelm. 

Q. Catesbaei,' Michx 199 

Q. cerris. Linn 207 

Q. cincrea. Micbx 199 

O. Phellos, var. cinerea, Spach. 
Q. seinpervirens, Catesby. 

Q. chrysolepis, Liebm 

Q^fulvesccns, Kellogg. 
^. ^rassijyocida. Torr. 
N'^ar. vacciniifolia, Er.gelm 
Q. vacdniifolia, Kellogg. 

Q.coccinea, Wano: 

0. ambigncL Michx. 
Q. borealis, IMichx. 
Q. dcnsiflora. Hook, and Arn. 

Q,. echinacea, Torr. 
Q. Duuglasii. Hook, and Arn. 
Q. dnmosa, Nutt 



199 



199 



200 

200 
200 



Q. herhendifoiia, Liebm. 
q.acui 



acutidens, Torr. 

Q. Emoryi. Torr 201 

Q. hastata, Liebm. 

Q. falcata. Michx 201 

0. elongata, Willd. 
0. discdor, var. fdiata, Spach. 
0. triloba, Michx. 
Q.falcatCL var. triloba, DO. 

Q. Ganyana, Dougl 201 

Q. Xecei, Liebm. 

Q. Georgiana. M. A. Curtis 201 

Q. heterophylla, Michx 201 

Q. aquatica. var. heterophylla, DC. 
Q. Pfiellos X coccinea, Engelm. 

Q, hypoleuca. Engelm 202 

Q. con ferti folia, Torr. 

Q. illicifoiia, Wang 202 

Q. imbricaria, Michx 202 

Q. Kelloggii, Newberry .. 202 

O. Be nth. 

Q. tinctoria, var. Califoimica, Torr. 

Q. Sonomensls, Bcnth. 
Q. laurifolia. Michx 202 

Q. aquatica. var. laurifolia. DC. 

Q. Phellos, var. laurifolia, Chap. 
Q. lobata, Nee 203 



Hindsii, Bcnth. 
Pansomi, Kellogg. 

Q. lyrata, Walt ^ 203 

Q. liiacrocarpa, Michx 203 

olivceformis. Michx. 
macrocarpa, var. olivcefo?7)iis, 
Gray. 

Q. Muhlenliergii. Engelm 203 

Q. castanea. Muhl. ap, Willd. 

Q. Prinus, var. acuminata, Michx. 
Q. nigra, L 204 

Q. ferritginea. Miclix. 

u.^quinqueloba, Engelm. 

§. nigra, var. quviqueloba, A. DC. 

Q. oblongifolia, Torr 204 

Q. Palmeri. Engelm. .. 204 

Q. chrysolenis, var. Palmeri, Englm. 

Q. palustris, DuRoi 204 

rubra dissecta, Lamk. 

Q. Pnellos. Linn 204 

Q. prinoides, Willd.... 205 

Q. Prinus jmniUa. Michx. 

Q. Chinquajmu Pursh. 
Q. Piinus. L 205 

Q. Prinus, var. nwnticda, Miclix. 

Q. inontana, Willd. 

Q. Rober 207 

Q. rubra, Linn 205 

Q. stellala, Wang 205 

0. obtusiloba, Michx. 

Q. Durandii, Buckley. 
Q. tinctoria, Bar tram 205 

Q. nigra. Marsh. 

O. velutina, Lam. 

Q. coccinea. var. tinctoi^ia. Gray. 

Q. tomentella. Engelm 206 

Q. nndulata. Torr 906 

Yar. Gambelii, Engelm. 

0. Gambelii, Nutt. 

Q. Brummondii. Liebm. 

\'ar. Jamesii. Engelm. 

Var. Wnghtii, Engelm. 

Var. breviloba, Engelm. 

Q. obtusiloba, var. breviloba, Torr. 

A ar. oblongata, Engelm. 

Q. obiOngi folia, Torr. 

\'ar. gnsea. Engelm. 

Q. g?isea, Liebm. 

\ i\Y. pwigens, Engelm. 

Q. pungens, Liebm. 
Q. virens, Ait 206 

Q sempervirens. Ait. 

Q. oleoides. Cham, and Schl. 

Q. retusa, Liebm. 

^. mantima, Willd. 

A ar. maritima. Chap. 
Q. Wislizeni. A. DC SOT 

Q. Morehus, Kellogg. 

Ral)b1t Berry 221 

Railroad Ties, Wood Used for 75 

Raising Trees from Seed *.'5 

Red Bay 180 

Red Bud 131 

Redwood • 124,247 

Relinispora. Siebold 246 

R. oblusa, Sieb 246 

R. pisifera, Sieb 246 

R. var. rairca plumosa 246 



INDEX. 



397 



Rhamnus, Linn. 203 

R. alnifolia 208 

R. California, Esch 208 

E. oleifoUa, Hook. 

Frangula CaUfornica^ Gray. 

Var. tomentella 208 

R. Caroliniana, Walt 208 

Frangula Caroliniana, Gray. 

R. catbar'tices, Linn 209 

R. crocea, Niitt 208 

B. illici folia, Kello^i^. 

R. lanceolatus, Piirsli. . 208 

R. Piirshiana, DC 208 

Frangula Purshiaua, Cooper. 

Rliizophora Mangle, Linn 209 

Rhododendron, Linn 209 

R. catawbieDse, Michx 210 

R. Lapponicum, Walil 210 

R. maximum, Linn 209 

Rhns, Linn 210 

R. aromatica, Ait 212 

R. trilohata, Nntt. 

R. copallina, Linn 212 

R. Cotinus, Linn 214 

R. Cotonides, Nutt 211 

R. diversiloba, Torr. and Gray... . 210 

i?. lobata. Hook. 
R. glabra. Linn 212 

R. Caroliniana, Mill. 

R. elegans. Ait. 

Var. laciniata. 
R. integri folia, Bentb and Hook.. 212 

Styphonia iittegrifolia, Nutt. 

S. serrata, Nutt. 
R. lanrina, Nnlt 214 

Litliroe, lauHna, Walp. 

R. Metopium, Linn. 214 

R. Osbecki, DC 214 

R. semialata, Murr. 

R. alata, Sav. 

R. Japonica, Hort. 

R. pumila, Miclix 212 

R. Toxicodendron, Linn 211 

Var. quercifolium, Michx. 

Var. radicam, Torr. 

R. typliina, Linn 214 

Rol)inia, Linn 215 

R. hispida, Linn . 215 

R. rosea, Lois el. 

R. Pseudacacia, Linn 215 

R. viscosn, Vent 215 

R, gluiinosa, Curtis. 

Rose acacia 215 

Rose Bay 209 

Salisbnria adiantifolia 236 

Salix, Tour 215 

S. cordata, Mnhl 216 

8. lutea^ Nutt. 

Var. Mackenziana, Hook. 

Var. Watsoni, Bebb. 
S. laevigata, Bebb 216 

Var. angustifolia, Bebb. 

Var. congesta, Bebb. 
S. lasiandra, Benth ... 216 

S. Hofftnanniana, Hook. & Arn. 

S. speciosa, Nutt. 

S. arguta, var. lasiandra, Anders. 
Var. iypea, Bebb. 



Var. landfoUa, Bebb. 

8. lanclfoiia, Anders. 

Var. Fendleiiana, Bebb. 

8. pentandra, var. caudata, Nutt. 
S. lasioiepis, Benth 217 

Var. Bigelowii, Bebb. 

Ya.i\failax, Bebb. 

S. Incida, Muhl 217 

S. nigra, Marsh 217 

8. ambigua, Pursh. 

8. Houstoniana, Pursh. 

8. Caroliniana, Michx. 

8.falcata, Pursii. 

Sambucus, Tour 218 

S. Canadensis, Linn 219 

S. glauca, Nutt 218 

S. pubens, Michx 219 

S. racemosa. Linn 219 

Sapindus, Linn 219 

S. marginatus, Willd 219 

S. Saponaria, Linn 219 

Sassafras officinale, Nces 219 

Laurus 8assafras^ Linn. 

Per sea 8assajras, Spreng. 

Satin Wood 231 

Schaifferia frutescens, Jacq 220 

8. completa, Swartz. 

8. buxifolia, Nutt. 

Schcepfia arborescens, R. & S 220 

Sciadopitys vetticillata, Siebold & 

Zucc 281 

Screw Bean 189 

Screw-pod Mesquit 190 

Sea-side Grnpe 135 

Season for Transplanting 06 

Sebastiana lucida, Muell 220 

Gijmnanthes lucida, Swartz. 

Exmcaria lucida, Swartz. 

Seedling Black Walnut 30 

Seedlings of ConiCerae 58 

Seedling Maple 19 

Seedling Pine 61 

Sequoia, Endl 247 

S. gigantea, Decaisne 247 

Wellingtonia gigantea, Lindl. 

Wa>ihingtonia Californica, T. 

8. Wellingtonia, Laws. 

Taxodium glganfeum, Kell.&Behr. 

Taxodium Washingtonianum, Wins- 
low. 

S. sempervircns, Endl 216 

Taxodium sempervirens, Lamb. 

8chubertia seinpervirens, Spach. 

Service Tree 105 

Shad Bush 105 

Sheep Berry 230 

Shepherdia, Nutt 221 

S. argentea, Nutt 221 

S. Canadensis, Nutt 221 

S. rotundifolia. Parry 221 

Sidcroxylon, Linn 222 

S. mastichodendron, Jacq 222 

8. pallidum. Spreng. 

Bamelia pallida, Swartz. 

Bumelia foetidissima, Nutt. 

Silver-Bell tree 155 

Siniaruba, Aul)let 222 

S. glauca, HBK 222 



298 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 



Snowball 231 

Suow-drop Tree 155 

Soap Berry 219 

Sophora, Liim 222 

S. affinis, Torr. & Gray . . . : 222 

Styphnolobium afflne^ Walp. 

S, Japonica, Sieb. 223 

S. secundiflora, Lag. 222 

S. s2)eciosa, Torr. . 

S. tomentosa, Linn 223 

Sorrel Tree... 178 

Sonr Gum 175 

Sowina- Seeds 60 

Sweet Gale. 174 

Sweet Gum 164 

Sweet Leaf 224 

Spanish Buckeye 229 

Spice Tree 228 

Spoonwood 163 

Spruce, Douglass 246 

Black or Double. 256 

Engelmami's 256 

Norway 257 

Silver 257 

Sitcha 257 

Tii,^er's Tail 258 

Stinkiiip: Cedar 235 

Striped Dog-wood 92 

Stuartia, Catesby . . 223 

S. Japonica, Sieb. & Zucc 224 

S. pentagynia, L'Her 224 

S. Yirginica, Cav , 224 

Sugar-berry 129 

Sumach 210 

Coral 214 

Dwarf 212 

Entire-leaved 212 

Evergreen 214 

Fragrant 212 

Oak-leaved 211 

Smooth , 212 

Staghorn 211 

Venetian 213 

Swietenia Mahagoni, Linn. 224 

Sycamore 184 

Symplocos tinctoria, L'Her 224 

ITopea tinctorea, Linn. 

Tcicamahac 186 

Tamarack 259 

Taxodium distichum, Richard.. .. 249 
Cuiwessus disticha. Linn. 

Taxus, Tour 235 

T. adpressa, Knight , 234 

T. baccata, Linn., var. Canadensis, 

Gray 233 

T. Canadensis, Willd. 

T. brevifolia, Nutt 234 

T. baccata, Hook. 

T. Boursieri, Carrie re. 

T. Lindleyana, Muir. 

T. cnspidafca, Sieb 234 

T. Floridana, Nutt 234 

T. globosa, Schlect 234 

Torreya, Arnott 234 

T. Californica, Torr 234 

T. Myristica, Muir. 

T. grandis, Fortune 236 

T. uucifera, Zucc 235 



Torreya, Nut-bearing 335 

Tall 236 

T. taxifolia, Arn _ 235 

Thorn, Barberry-leaved 139 

Cockspur. \ ..... . .. 139 

Douglass. . . . . 139 

English Hawthorn 141 

Evergreen 141 

Parsley-leaved 139 

Pear or Black 140 

Scarlet- fruited 139 

Small-leaved 140 

Spatula-leaved. 140 

Tall Hawthorn 139 

Yellow-fruited 139 

Three-thorned Acacia 152 

Thuya, Tour 244 

T. gigantea, Nutt 245 

T. plicata, Donn. 
T. MenziesU, Dougl. 

T. occidentalis, Linn 245 

Tilia Americana, Linn 225 

Var. macrophylla, Hort. 
Var. pubescens. Gray. 
T.pubescens, Ait. 
T. laxi folia, Michx. 

Tilia Europsea, Linn 226 

T. heterophylla, Vent 225 

T. alba, Michx. 
2\ laxiflora, Pursh. 

Time to Prune 69 

Tooth-ache Tree 231 

Tornilla 190 

Torch Wood 106 

Toy on . . 156 

Transplanting Seedlings 32 

Tree-Digger 29 

Trees for Shelter 17 

Tsuga Canadensis, Carriere 254 

Finns Canadensis, Linn. 
Abies Canadensis, Michx. 
Picea Canadensis, Link. 

T. Mertensiana, Bongard 255 

Films Mertensiana, Bong. 



Abies Mertensiana, Lindl. 
Abies Albertiana, Murr. 
Abies Bridgesii, Kellogg. 

T. Pattoniana, Engelm . 255 

Abies Fattoniana, Jeffrey. 
Abies Hookeriana, Murr. 
Abies Williainsonii, Newberry. 
Finns Fattoniana, Pari. 



Tulip Tree 166 

Tupelo 175 

Large 176 

Ulmus, Linn . . 226 

U. a lata, Michx 227 

IJ.pumila, Nutt. 

U. Americana, Willd 227 

TJ. Floridana, Chapman. 

U. crassifolia, Nutt 227 

TJ. opaca, Nutt. 

U. fulva, Michx 227 

TJ. rubra, Michx. 
U. racemosa, Thomas. 228 



Umbellularia Californica, Nutt — 229 
Oreodaphne Californica, Nees. 
Tetranthera Californica, H. & Arn. 



IKDEX. 



299 



DHmTjphyllum imudjlorum, Nutt. 



Ungnadia speciosa, Endl 229 

Umbrella Tree 170 

Viburnum, Linn 230 

V. Lentago, Linn 230 

V. opulus, Linn 230 

Var. oocycoccus^ Pursh. 
Var. edule, Pursh. 

V. prunifolium, Linn 230 

Virgilia lutea, Michx 12:3 

Virginia Poplar 166 

Walnut 158 

Barthere 161 

Black 159 

Californian 159 

Cut-leaved 162 

English 160 

French 160 

Gibbous, 161 

Small -fruited., 161 

Water Beech 115 

Wax Myrtle 174 

West Indian Birch 114 

Whahoo 227 

White Basswood. . 22p 

White Fringe Tree 132 

White Mangrove 164 

White Wood 166 



Wicky 163 

Willow, Babylonian 218 

Black 217 

Heart-leaved 216 

Hooped-leaved 218 

Long-leaved 216 

Ring-leaved 218 

Shining 217 

Weeping 218 

White 218 

Xanthoxylum, Linn 231 

X. Americanum, Mill 232 

X. Caribaeum 231 

X. Floridamim, Nutt. 

X. Clava-Hcrculis, Linn 231 

X. Caivlinianurriy Lam. 

X. Pterota, HBK 231 

Ximenia Americana, Linn 232 

Yeara 210 

Yellow Cucumber Tree 168 

Yellow Wood 133 

Yew, American 233 

Canada 233 

Florida 234 

Mexican 234 

Western 234 

ZizyphuB obtusifolius. Gray 232 

Paliiirus Texensis, Scheele. 



The American Agriculturist 

FOR THE 

Farm, Garden, and Household. 

Established in 1842. 

Tie Best aM Cheapest Airicuitural Journal in tie forlfl. 

Terms, which include postage pre-paid by the Pabh'shers : $1.50 per annum, 
in advance ; 3 copies for ^4 ; 4 copies for i5 ; 5 copies for $6 ; 6 copies for ST ; 
7 copies for $p8 ; 10 or more copies, only $1 each. Single Numbers, 15 cents. 

AMERIKAinSCHEE AaHICULTUEIST. 

The only purely Agricultural German paper in the United States, and the 
best in the world. It contains all of the principal matter of the English Edition, 
together with special departments for German cultivators, prepared by writers 
trained for the work. Terms same as for the " American Agriculturist." 

BOOES FOn FARMERS AUD OTHERS. 

Send ten cents for our new handsomely illustrated and descriptive Catalogue 
of Books on all branches of Agriculture, Horticulture, Architecture, etc. All 
books comprised in this Catalogue will be mailed pre-paid on receipt of the 
price named. Our abridged descriptive Catalogue of Books will be sent free on 
application. 

Books on Out-Door Sports and Pastimes. 

Send five cents for our new and ele|;antly gotten up Sportsman's Com- 
panion, containing brief descriptions or outlines of nearly one hundred and 
eighty works upon legitimate Out-door Sports and Amusements, and illustrat- 
ed with a great number of engravings, many of them drawn from life, and 
faithfully portraying the points and characteristics of game, birds, fishes, 
horses, dogs, etc., etc. 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 751 Broadway, New York. 
DAVID W. JUDD, Pres't SAM'L BtJENHAM, ^ec. 



0 



-A. -< 





\ ■ 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



